Source text: “List of Verse Forms”
Háttatal
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Old Norse text in the normalized spelling of Guðni Jónsson's edition.
Hvat eru hættir skáldskapar? Þrennt. Hverir? Setning, leyfi, fyrirboðning. Hvat er setning háttanna? Tvenn. Hver? Rétt ok breytt. Hvernig er rétt setning háttanna? Tvenn. Hver? Tala ok grein. Hvat er tala setningar háttanna? Þrenn. Hver? Sú er ein tala, hversu margir hættir hafa fundizt í kveðskap höfuðskálda. Önnur tala er þat, hversu mörg vísuorð standa í einu erendi í hverjum hætti. In þriðja tala er sú, hversu margar samstöfur er settar í hvert vísuorð í hverjum hætti. Hver er grein setningar háttanna? Tvenn. Hver? Málsgrein ok hljóðgrein. Hvat er málsgrein?Stafsetning greinir mál allt, en hljóðgrein er þat at hafa samstöfur langar eða skammar, harðar eða linar, ok þat er setning hljóðsgreina, er vér köllum hendingar, svá sem hér er kveðit: Hér er stafasetning sú, er hætti ræðr ok kveðandi gerir. Þat eru tólf stafir í erendi, ok eru þrír settir í hvern fjórðung. Í hverjum fjórðungi eru tvau vísuorð. Hverju vísuorði fylgja sex samstöfur. Í öðru vísuorði eru settr sá stafr fyrst í vísuorðinu, er vér köllum höfustaf. Sá stafr ræðr kveðandi. En í fyrsta vísuorði mun sá stafr finnast tysvar standa fyrir samstöfur. Þá stafi köllum vér stuðla. Ef höfuðstafr er samhljóðandi, þá skulu stuðlar vera inn sami stafr, svá sem hér er: en rangt er, ef þessir stafir standa fyrir samstöfur oftar eða sjaldnar en svá í fjórðungi vísu. En ef hljóðstafr er höfuðstafrinn, þá skulu stuðlar vera ok hljóðstafir, ok er þá fegra, at sinn hljóðstafr sé hverr þeira. Þá má ok hlýða, at hljóðstafr standi fyrir oftar í fjórðungi í fornöfnum eða í málfylling þeiri, er svá kveðr at: ek, - eða svá: en, er, at, í, á, of, af, um, ok er þat leyfi, en eigi rétt setning. Önnur stafasetning er sú, er fylgir setning hljóðs þess, er hátt gerir ok kveðandi. Skal sú grein í dróttkvæðum hætti svá vera, at fjórðungr vísu skal þar saman fara at allri stafasetning ok hljóða. Skal í fyrra vísuorði þannig greina þá setning: Hér er svá: jörð, fyrð, þat er ein samstafa í hvárum stað, ok sinn hljóðstafr fylgir hvárri, ok svá upphafsstafir, en einir stafir eru eftir hljóðstaf í báðum orðum. Þessa setning hljóðfalls köllum vér skothending. En í öðru vísuorði er svá: Svá er hér: rofs, ofs. Þat er ein hljóðstafr ok svá allir þeir, er eftir fara í báðum orðum, en upphafstafir greina orðin. Þetta heita aðalhendingar. Svá skal hendingar setja í dróttkvæðum hætti, at in síðari hending í hverju vísuorði, er heitir viðrhending, hon skal standa í þeiri samstöfu, er ein er síðar, en sú hending, er frumhending heitir, stendr stundum í upphafi orðs, köllum vér þá oddhending, stundum í miðju orði, köllum vér þá hluthending. Þetta er dróttkvæðr háttr. Með þeim hætti er flest ort, þat er vandat er. Þessi er upphaf allra hátta, sem málrúnar eru fyrir öðrum rúnum. Hvernig er breytt setning háttanna? Tvá vega. Hvernig? Með máli ok hljóðum. Hvernig skal með máli skipta? Tvá vega. Hvernig? Halda eða skipta háttunum. Hvernig skal breyta háttunum ok halda sama hætti? Svá, at kenna eða styðja eða reka eða sannkenna eða yrkja nýgervingum. Hvat eru kenndir hættir? Svá sem þetta: Hér eru öll heiti kennd í þessi vísu, en hendingar ok orðalengð ok stafaskipti fara sem fyrr var ritat. Kenningar eru með þrennum háttum greindar. Fyrst heita kenningar, annat tvíkennt, þriðja rekit. Þat er kenning at kalla fleinbrak orrustu, en þat er tvíkennt at kalla fleinbraks fúr sverðit, en þá er rekit, ef lengra er. Rekit: Hvat er sannkeningar? Svá sem þetta: Þat er sannkenning at styðja svá orðit með sönnu efni, svá at kalla stinn sárin, því at höfug eru sár stór. En rétt er mælt at þróask. Önnur sannkenning er sú, at sárin þróask stórum. Nú er eitt vísuorð ok tvær sannkenningar. Í örðu vísuorði er kölluð sterk egg, en framir seggir. Í inu þriðja er svá, at hvasst skerr, hlífin er traust, ok í fjórða orði at kalla konunginn mikinn, en líf hans framligt; þar næst, at kalla hreint sverð ok harðliga roðit, en einn hverr liðsmanna, ok væri rétt mál, þótt maðr væri nefndr. Göfugr er konungrinn kallaðr. Röndin var kostig ok furaðisk undarliga skjótt. Konungrinn unði glaðr fræknu hjarta. Nú eru hér sýndar sextán sannkenningar í átta vísuorðum, en þó fegra þær mjök í kveðandi, at eigi sé svá vandliga eftir þeim farit. Sannkenningar hafa þrenna grein. Heitir ein sannkenning, önnur stuðning, þriðja tvíriðit. Stuðningar: Hér fylgir stuðning hverri sannkenning, svá sem kölluð er eggin óhörð, en fullhvatir mennirnir. Þat er sannkenning, hörð egg, en hvatir menn. Þat er stuðning, er annat sönnunarorð fylgir sannkenning. Hvar eru nýgervingar? Svá sem þetta: Þat eru nýgervingar at kalla sverðit orm ok kenna rétt, en slíðrirnar götur hans, en fetlana ok umgerð hams hans. Þar heldr til ormsins náttúra, at hann skríðr ór hamsi ok til vatns. Hér er svá sett nýgerving, at hann ferr leita blóðs bekkjar at, þar er hann skríðr hugar stígu, þat eru brjóst manna. Þá þykkja nýgervingar vel kveðnar, ef þat mál, er upp er tekit, haldi of alla vísulengð. En ef sverð er ormr kallaðr, en síðan fiskr eða vöndr eða annan veg breytt, þat kalla menn nykrat, ok þykkir þat spilla. Nú er dróttkveðinn háttr með fimm greinum, ok er þó inn sami háttr réttr ok óbrugðinn, ok er oftliga þessar greinir sumar eða allar í einni vísu, ok er þat rétt, því at kenningar auka orðfjölða, sannkenningar fegra ok fylla mál, nýgervingar sýna kunnustu ok orðfimi. Þat er leyfi háttanna at hafa samstöfur seinar eða skjótar, svá at dragist fram eða aftr ór réttri tölu setningar, ok megu finnast svá seinar, at fimm samstöfur sé í öðru ok inu fjórða vísuorði, svá sem hér er: Í þessi vísu eru allar oddhendingar inar fyrri hendingar, ok er þó þessi háttr dróttkvæðr at hætti. Nú skal sýna svá skjótar samstöfur ok svá settar nær hverja annarri, at af því eykr lengð orðsins: Hér er í fyrsta ok þriðja vísuorði níu samstöfur, en í öðru ok inu fjórða sjau. Hér er þat sýnt, hversu flestar samstöfur megu vera í vísuorði með dróttkvæðum hætti, ok af þessu má þat vita, at átta eða sjau megu vel hlýða í fyrsta og þriðja vísuorði. Í þessi vísu eru allar frum
English translation made by AI from the Old Norse.
What are the categories of poetic form? Three. Which? Rule, licence, prohibition. What kinds of rules govern metres? Two. Which? Regular and varied. What kinds of regular rules govern metres? Two. Which? Number and distinction. What kinds of number govern the rules of metres? Three. Which? One is the number of metres that have been devised in the poetry of the foremost poets. The second is the number of verse lines in one stanza in each metre. The third is the number of syllables placed in each verse line in each metre. What distinctions govern the rules of metres? Two. Which? Distinctions of language and distinctions of sound. What are distinctions of language? The arrangement of letters distinguishes all language, while distinctions of sound consist in making syllables long or short, hard or soft; and the arrangement of sound distinctions is what we call internal rhymes, as in the verse given here:
Here is the arrangement of letters that governs the metre and produces its rhythm. There are twelve alliterating letters in a stanza, and three are placed in each quarter. Each quarter contains two verse lines. Each verse line has six syllables. In the second verse line, the letter we call the chief stave is placed at the beginning of the line. That letter governs the alliteration. In the first verse line, that letter will be found twice at the beginnings of syllables. We call those letters supporting staves. If the chief stave is a consonant, the supporting staves must be the same letter, as here: but it is incorrect if these letters begin syllables more or fewer times than this in a quarter-stanza. If the chief stave is a vowel, the supporting staves must also be vowels, and it is more pleasing if each is a different vowel. It may also be acceptable for a vowel to occur more often at the beginning of a syllable within a quarter-stanza in pronouns or in such words used to fill out the sentence as ek, “I,” or en, “but,” er, “which,” at, “that,” í, “in,” á, “on,” of, af, “from,” and um, “about”; this is licence, however, rather than regular observance of the rules.
Another arrangement of letters accompanies the arrangement of the sound that produces metre and rhythm. In court metre this distinction must be observed so that a quarter-stanza agrees throughout in its arrangement of letters and sounds. In the first verse line, the arrangement is to be distinguished as follows: here we have jörð, fyrð. Each is one syllable, and each has a different vowel, as well as different initial letters, but the letters following the vowel are the same in both words. We call this arrangement of sound half-rhyme. In the second verse line it is as follows: here we have rofs, ofs. The vowel is the same, as are all the letters following it in both words, but the initial letters distinguish the words. These are called full rhymes. Internal rhymes in court metre must be placed so that the second rhyme in each verse line, called the answering rhyme, stands in the syllable followed by just one more syllable, while the rhyme called the initial rhyme sometimes stands at the beginning of a word, in which case we call it a beginning-rhyme, and sometimes in the middle of a word, in which case we call it a part-rhyme. This is court metre. Most carefully wrought poetry is composed in this metre. It is the foundation of all metres, as speech-runes are of other runes.
How are the rules of metres varied? In two ways. How? Through language and sounds. How is variation made through language? In two ways. How? By keeping or changing the metre. How can the forms be varied while keeping the same metre? By using kennings, reinforcement, extended kennings, true descriptions, or newly devised imagery. What are forms using kennings? As in this example: here all the terms in this stanza are expressed through kennings, while the internal rhymes, word length, and arrangement of alliterating letters follow what was written above. Kennings are divided into three kinds. The first is called a kenning, the second a double kenning, and the third an extended kenning. It is a kenning to call battle “spear-crash,” a double kenning to call the sword “the fire of spear-crash,” and an extended kenning if it goes further. An extended kenning:
What are true descriptions? As in this example: it is a true description to support a word with something true of its substance, as when wounds are called severe, because large wounds are grievous. It is also correct to say that they grow. A second true description is that the wounds grow greatly. There is now one verse line with two true descriptions. In the second verse line the edge is called strong and the warriors valiant. In the third it is said that something sharp cuts, and the shield is sturdy; in the fourth line the king is called great and his life illustrious; next, a sword is called clean and fiercely reddened, and each man is called one of the company, though it would be correct language even if he were called a man. The king is called noble. The shield was excellent and was pierced with astonishing speed. The king rejoiced, glad in his bold heart. Sixteen true descriptions have now been shown here in eight verse lines, yet they greatly embellish poetry even when they are not so painstakingly pursued.
True descriptions have three divisions. One is called true description, another reinforcement, and the third doubling. Reinforcements: here a reinforcement accompanies each true description, as when the edge is called not hard and the men exceedingly bold. “Hard edge” and “bold men” are true descriptions. It is reinforcement when another qualifying word accompanies a true description.
Where is newly devised imagery found? As in this example: it is newly devised imagery to call the sword a serpent and construct the kenning correctly, calling the scabbard its paths and the sword-belt and fittings its slough. Here the serpent’s nature is followed, in that it crawls out of its slough and towards water. The newly devised imagery is arranged here so that it goes in search of a stream of blood, where it crawls along the paths of thought, which are men’s breasts. Newly devised imagery is considered well composed when the image taken up is maintained throughout the stanza. But if a sword is called a serpent and then a fish or a wand, or is changed in some other way, people call this a monstrous mixture, and it is thought a blemish.
Court metre now has five varieties, yet it remains the same metre, regular and unchanged, and often some or all of these varieties occur in one stanza. This is correct, because kennings increase the range of words, true descriptions embellish and fill out the language, and newly devised imagery displays knowledge and skill with words.
It is a licence of metres to make syllables slow or quick, so that they extend beyond or fall short of the regular number prescribed by the rules; they may be so slow that there are five syllables in the second and fourth verse lines, as here: in this stanza all the first rhymes are beginning-rhymes, yet this metre follows the form of court metre. Now syllables will be shown that are so quick and placed so close together that the length of the line is thereby increased: here there are nine syllables in the first and third verse lines, and seven in the second and fourth. Here it is shown how many syllables at most there may be in a verse line in court metre, and from this it may be understood that eight or seven may readily be acceptable in the first and third verse lines. In this stanza all the initial