Source text: “The Beguiling of Gylfi”

King Gylfi ruled the lands now called Sweden. It is said of him that he gave a wandering woman, as a reward for entertaining him, as much ploughland in his kingdom as four oxen could plough in a day and a night. This woman was of the race of the Aesir; her name was Gefjon. She took four oxen from the north, out of Jotunheim; they were her sons by a certain giant. She harnessed them to a plough, and the plough cut so broadly and deeply that it loosened the land. The oxen dragged that land out to sea and westward, and stopped in a certain strait. There Gefjon set the land down, gave it a name, and called it Zealand. Where the land had been torn up, a lake remained. It is now called Lake Mälaren in Sweden, and the inlets in the lake correspond to the headlands of Zealand. As the poet Bragi the Old says:

Gefjon gladly drew from Gylfi
the deep-soiled round of land,
Denmark's increase, so that the straining
beasts sent up steam.
The oxen bore eight
forehead moons and four heads
as they went before the broad
plundered island of meadows.

King Gylfi was a wise man and skilled in magic. He wondered greatly that the people of the Aesir were so knowledgeable that everything went according to their wishes. He considered whether this came from their own nature or was brought about by the divine powers they worshipped. He set out for Asgard, travelling secretly, and disguised himself by taking on the appearance of an old man. But the Aesir were wiser in this, for they had the gift of prophecy: they saw his journey before he arrived and prepared illusions to meet him.

When he entered the stronghold, he saw a hall so high that he could scarcely see over it. Its roof was laid with gilded shields like shingles. As Thjodolf of Hvin says, Valhalla was roofed with shields:

On their backs the thoughtful warriors
let Svafnir's hall-shingles gleam;
they were battered
with stones.

Gylfi saw a man in the doorway of the hall, juggling short swords, with seven in the air at once. This man was the first to ask the other's name. Gylfi called himself Gangleri and said he had come by out-of-the-way paths. He asked for a night's lodging and asked who owned the hall. The man answered that it belonged to their king: “But I can take you to see him. Then you must ask his name yourself.” The man turned and went ahead of him into the hall, and he followed. At once the door closed behind his heels. There he saw many sections of floor and many people: some were playing games, some drinking, and some fighting with weapons. He looked around, and many things he saw seemed incredible to him. Then he said:

Every doorway,
before going forward,
should be looked about,
for there is no knowing
where enemies sit
in the hall ahead.

He saw three high seats, each above the next, with three men, one in each. He asked the names of their rulers. The man who had led him in answered that the one seated in the lowest high seat was king: “His name is Har; next is the one called Jafnhar, and highest is the one called Thridi.”

Har asked the newcomer whether he had any further business, adding that food and drink were freely available to him, as to everyone there in Har's hall. He said that first he wished to ask whether there was any learned man inside. Har said he would not come out unharmed unless he proved the wiser:

“And stand forward
while you ask;
the one who answers shall sit.”

Gangleri began by asking: “Who is highest or oldest of all the gods?”

Har said: “He is called Allfather in our language, but in ancient Asgard he had twelve names. One is Allfather, the second Herran or Herjan, the third Nikar or Hnikar, the fourth Nikud or Hnikud, the fifth Fjolnir, the sixth Oski, the seventh Omi, the eighth Biflidi or Biflindi, the ninth Svidur, the tenth Svidrir, the eleventh Vidrir, and the twelfth Jalg or Jalk.”

Then Gangleri asked: “Where is this god, what powers does he have, and what great deeds has he done?”

Har said: “He lives through all ages, governs his entire realm, and rules all things, great and small.”

Then Jafnhar said: “He fashioned heaven and earth and the skies, and everything in them.”

Then Thridi said: “Yet his greatest deed was to make humankind and give each person a soul that shall live and never perish, though the body rots into earth or burns to ashes. All people who live rightly shall live on and be with him himself in the place called Gimle or Vingolf. But wicked people go to Hel, and from there into Niflhel, down in the ninth world.”

Then Gangleri said: “What was he doing before heaven and earth were made?”

Har answered: “Then he was among the frost giants.”

Gangleri said: “What was the beginning, how did it begin, and what was there before?”

Har answered: “As it says in the Seeress's Prophecy:

It was early in the ages,
when nothing existed;
there was neither sand nor sea
nor cool waves;
earth was nowhere to be found,
nor heaven above;
there was Ginnungagap,
but no grass.”

Then Jafnhar said: “It was many ages before the earth was created that Niflheim was made. In its centre lies the spring called Hvergelmir, and from it flow the rivers named Svol, Gunnthra, Fjorm, Fimbulthul, Slid and Hrid, Sylg and Ylg, Vid and Leipt. Gjoll is nearest the gates of Hel.”

Then Thridi said: “First, however, there was the world in the southern region called Muspell. It is bright and hot. That region flames and burns, and it is impassable to outsiders who have no ancestral home there. The one who sits at its frontier to defend the land is called Surt. He has a flaming sword, and at the end of the world he will go out to wage war, defeat all the gods, and burn the whole world with fire. As it says in the Seeress's Prophecy:

Surt comes from the south
with the scourge of branches;
from his sword shines
the sun of the gods of the slain;
rocky mountains crash,
and giantesses stumble;
men tread the road to Hel,
and heaven splits apart.”

Gangleri said: “How did things take shape before the races came into being or humankind increased?”

Then Har said: “When the rivers called Elivagar had come so far from their sources that the poisonous fluid flowing with them hardened like the slag that runs from a fire, it became ice. When that ice came to a standstill and no longer flowed, it froze over. The vapour rising from the poison froze into frost, and the frost built up layer upon layer, all the way into Ginnungagap.”

Then Jafnhar said: “The part of Ginnungagap facing north filled with the weight and heaviness of ice and frost, and within it were mist and gusts of wind. But the southern part of Ginnungagap grew light from the sparks and glowing embers that flew out of Muspell's world.”

Then Thridi said: “Just as cold and all things harsh came from Niflheim, everything facing towards Muspell was hot and bright. But Ginnungagap was as mild as windless air. When the frost met the warm breath of heat, so that it melted and dripped, life arose from those flowing drops through the power of the one who sent the heat. It took on a human shape, and this being was named Ymir. The frost giants call him Aurgelmir, and from him descend the races of frost giants, as it says in the Shorter Seeress's Prophecy:

All seeresses descend
from Vidolf,
all wizards
from Vilmeid,
and practitioners of sorcery
from Svarthofdi;
all giants
descend from Ymir.

And here the giant Vafthrudnir says:

From Elivagar
sprang drops of poison,
and grew until a giant emerged;
from there our kindreds
all came together;
that is why they are always so fierce.”

Then Gangleri said: “How did races grow from him, or how did it happen that more people came into being? And do you believe that the one you have just told me about is a god?”

Har answered: “By no means do we acknowledge him as a god. He is evil, as are all his descendants. We call them frost giants. It is said that while he slept, he began to sweat. Then a man and a woman grew beneath his left arm, and one of his feet fathered a son with the other. From these came the races of frost giants. That ancient frost giant we call Ymir.”

Then Gangleri said: “Where did Ymir live, and what did he live on?”

Har answered: “The next thing was that, as the frost dripped, it formed a cow called Audhumla. Four rivers of milk flowed from her teats, and she nourished Ymir.”

Then Gangleri said: “What nourished the cow?”

Har answered: “She licked the frost-covered stones, which were salty. On the first day she licked them, a man's hair emerged from the stone by evening; on the second day, a man's head; and on the third day, a whole man was there. He is called Buri. He was handsome, large, and powerful. He fathered a son called Bor, who married a woman called Bestla, daughter of the giant Bolthorn, and they had three sons. One was called Odin, the second Vili, and the third Ve. It is my belief that this Odin and his brothers are the rulers of heaven and earth. We believe that this is his name. It is the name of the man we know to be greatest and most glorious, and you may well call him by that name.”

Then Gangleri said: “What became of their relations, and which side was stronger?”

Har answered: “Bor's sons killed the giant Ymir. When he fell, so much blood poured from his wounds that in it they drowned the whole race of frost giants, except for one who escaped with his household. The giants call him Bergelmir. He climbed onto his mill-box with his wife and survived there. From them descend the races of frost giants, as it says here:

Countless winters
before the earth was created,
Bergelmir was born;
the first thing I remember
is when that wise giant
was laid upon a mill-box.”

Then Gangleri said: “What did Bor's sons do next, if you believe they are gods?”

Har said: “There is no small tale to tell of that. They took Ymir and carried him into the middle of Ginnungagap, and from him they made the earth, and from his blood the sea and lakes. The earth was made from his flesh, and the mountains from his bones. Stones and scree they made from his teeth and molars and from the bones that had been broken.”

Then Jafnhar said: “From the blood that flowed freely out of his wounds they made the sea, when they formed and joined the earth together. They laid that sea in a ring around it, and most people would think it impossible to cross.”

Then Thridi said: “They also took his skull and made the sky from it, setting it up over the earth with four corners. Beneath each corner they placed a dwarf. Their names are Austri, Vestri, Nordri, and Sudri. Then they took the glowing embers and sparks that flew loose, having been cast out of Muspell's world, and set them in the middle of Ginnungagap, both above and below in the heavens, to light heaven and earth. They assigned places to all the heavenly lights. Some were fixed in the heavens, while others moved freely beneath them; yet even these they assigned their places and appointed their courses. Ancient lore says that from then on days and nights were distinguished and years reckoned. As it says in the Seeress's Prophecy:

The sun did not know
where she had her dwelling;
the moon did not know
what power he had;
the stars did not know
where they had their places.

That was how things were before this happened.”

Then Gangleri said: “These are great tidings that I now hear. That is a tremendous work, and skilfully made. What shape did the earth have?”

Har answered: “It is circular around its outer edge, and the deep sea lies all around it. Along that seashore they gave lands to the races of giants to settle. But farther inland they built a fortification around the world against the hostility of the giants. For this fortification they used the giant Ymir's eyebrows, and they called it Midgard. They also took his brain and threw it into the air, making the clouds from it, as it says here:

From Ymir's flesh
the earth was created,
and from his blood the sea,
mountains from his bones,
trees from his hair,
and from his skull the sky.
And from his eyebrows
the gracious powers made
Midgard for the children of men;
and from his brain
all those fierce-tempered
clouds were created.”

Then Gangleri said: "It seems to me that they had accomplished a great deal by then, when earth and heaven had been made, the sun and heavenly bodies set in place, and day and night divided. But where did the people who inhabit the world come from?"

Then Har said: "As the sons of Bor walked along the seashore, they found two trees, picked them up, and fashioned people from them. The first gave them breath and life, the second understanding and movement, and the third a face, speech, hearing, and sight. They gave them clothes and names. The man was called Ask and the woman Embla, and from them sprang the human race, which was given a dwelling within Midgard. Next they made themselves a stronghold in the middle of the world, called Asgard. We call it Troy. There the gods and their kindreds dwelt, and from there arose many events and happenings, both on earth and in the sky. There is a place there called Hlidskjalf, and when Odin sat there in the high seat, he could see throughout all worlds and see every person's deeds, and he understood everything he saw. His wife was called Frigg, daughter of Fjorgyn, and from their line comes the race we call the kindreds of the Aesir, who have inhabited ancient Asgard and the realms belonging to it. That entire race is of divine descent. And he may be called Allfather because he is the father of all the gods and humans and everything that was brought into being by him and his power. Jord was his daughter and his wife. By her he fathered his first son, who is Thor of the Aesir. Power and strength were his, and with them he overcomes all living creatures.

A giant called Norfi or Narfi lived in Jotunheim. He had a daughter called Night. She was black and dark, as befitted her ancestry. She was married to a man called Naglfari. Their son was called Aud. Next she was married to a man called Anar. Their daughter was called Jord. Last she married Delling, who was of the race of the Aesir. Their son was Day. He was bright and beautiful, taking after his father. Then Allfather took Night and her son Day, gave them two horses and two chariots, and sent them up into the sky to ride around the earth every twenty-four hours. Night rides first, on the horse called Hrimfaxi, and every morning he bedews the earth with the drops of foam from his bit. The horse Day owns is called Skinfaxi, and his mane lights up all the sky and the earth."

Then Gangleri said: "How does he direct the course of the sun or the moon?"

Har said: "There was a man called Mundilfari who had two children. They were so beautiful and fair that he called his son Mani and his daughter Sol, and married her to a man called Glen. But the gods were angered by this arrogance, so they took the brother and sister and placed them up in the sky. They made Sol drive the horses that drew the chariot of the sun, which the gods had fashioned to light the worlds from a glowing ember that flew out of Muspellheim. Those horses are called Arvak and Alsvid. Beneath the horses' shoulders the gods placed two bellows to cool them, though in some accounts this is called Isarnkol. Mani directs the course of the moon and governs its waxing and waning. He took two children from the earth, called Bil and Hjuki, as they were walking away from the well called Byrgir, carrying on their shoulders a tub called Saeg, on a pole called Simul. Their father is called Vidfinn. These children accompany Mani, as can be seen from the earth."

Then Gangleri said: "The sun travels swiftly, almost as though she were afraid, and she could scarcely hasten her course more even if she feared her own death."

Then Har answered: "It is no wonder she travels so swiftly. The one pursuing her is close behind, and she has no escape except to flee."

Then Gangleri said: "Who is it that causes her this trouble?"

Har said: "There are two wolves. The one that follows her is called Skoll. She fears him, and he will catch her. The one running ahead of her is called Hati, son of Hrodvitnir. He wants to catch the moon, and so it will happen."

Then Gangleri said: "What is the wolves' ancestry?"

Har said: "A giantess lives east of Midgard in the forest called Ironwood. In that forest dwell the troll-women called the Ironwood women. The old giantess bears many giants as sons, all in the shape of wolves, and these wolves are descended from them. It is said that the mightiest of that kin will be the one called Managarm. He fills himself with the lifeblood of everyone who dies, and he swallows the moon and spatters blood over heaven and all the sky. Then the sun loses its light, and the winds rage and roar from every side. As it says in the Prophecy of the Seeress:

In the east the old one lives,
in Ironwood,
and there gives birth
to Fenrir's brood;
of them all
one will become
the moon's snatcher
in a troll's shape.

He fills himself with the lifeblood
of doomed people,
reddens the gods' dwelling
with crimson blood;
the sun's rays turn black
in the summers that follow,
all weather treacherous.
Do you know yet—or what?"

Then Gangleri said: "What is the way from earth to heaven?"

Then Har answered with a laugh: "That is not a knowledgeable question. Have you not been told that the gods made a bridge from earth to heaven called Bifrost? You must have seen it. Perhaps you call it the rainbow. It has three colours and is very strong, made with greater skill and knowledge than other works. But strong as it is, it will break when the sons of Muspell advance and ride over it, and their horses will swim across great rivers. That is how they will make their way."

Then Gangleri said: "It seems to me that the gods did not build the bridge faithfully if it can break, when they can make things as they please."

Then Har said: "The gods deserve no blame for this work. Bifrost is a good bridge, but there is nothing in this world that can be relied upon when the sons of Muspell attack."

Then Gangleri said: "What did Allfather do when Asgard had been made?"

Har said: "At first he appointed rulers to their seats and asked them to judge people's fates with him and decide how the stronghold should be arranged. This was at the place called Idavoll, in the middle of the stronghold. Their first work was to build the temple where their twelve seats stand, besides the high seat belonging to Allfather. That building is the finest and largest on earth. Inside and out it is all like pure gold. People call that place Gladsheim. They made another hall, a sanctuary belonging to the goddesses, and it was very beautiful. People call that building Vingolf. Next they made a building in which they set up a forge, and for it they made a hammer, tongs, and an anvil, and then all the other tools. After that they worked metal, stone, and wood, and so abundantly the metal called gold that all their household furnishings and all their equipment were made of gold. That age is called the golden age, before it was spoiled by the coming of the women. They came from Jotunheim.

Next the gods took their seats, gave their judgments, and considered how dwarfs had come to life in the soil and down in the earth, like maggots in flesh. The dwarfs had first taken shape and come to life in Ymir's flesh, and were then maggots, but by the gods' decree they acquired human understanding and human form, though they live in earth and stones. Motsognir was the foremost, and Durin the second. As it says in the Prophecy of the Seeress:

Then all the powers went
to the seats of judgment,
the most holy gods,
and considered this:
who should fashion
the host of dwarfs
from the bloody sea
and from Blain's limbs.

There many forms
of human likeness were made,
dwarfs in the earth,
as Durin said.

And she gives these names of the dwarfs:

Nyi, Nidi,
Nordri, Sudri,
Austri, Vestri,
Althjof, Dvalin,
Nar, Nain,
Niping, Dain,
Bifur, Bafur,
Bombur, Nori,
Ori, Onar,
Oin, Mjodvitnir.

Vigg and Gandalf,
Vindalf, Thorin,
Fili, Kili,
Fundin, Vali,
Thror, Throin,
Thekk, Lit and Vit,
Nyr, Nyrad,
Rekk, Radsvid.

These too are dwarfs, and they live in stones, while the former live in the soil:

Draupnir, Dolgthvari,
Har, Hugstari,
Hledjolf, Gloin,
Dori, Ori,
Duf, Andvari,
Heftifili,
Har, Sviar.

But these came from Svarin's Mound to Aurvangar on Joruvellir, and from them Lofar is descended. These are their names:

Skirfir, Virfir,
Skafid, Ai,
Alf, Yngvi,
Eikinskjaldi,
Fal, Frosti,
Fid, Ginnar."

Then Gangleri said: "Where is the gods' chief seat or holy place?"

Har answered: "It is at the ash Yggdrasil. There the gods must hold their courts each day."

Then Gangleri said: "What is there to tell about that place?"

Then Jafnhar said: "The ash is the greatest and best of all trees. Its branches spread over the whole world and reach above heaven. Three roots support the tree and spread very far apart. One is among the Aesir, another among the frost-giants, where Ginnungagap once was. The third stands over Niflheim, and beneath that root is Hvergelmir, while Nidhogg gnaws at the root from below. Beneath the root that reaches towards the frost-giants is Mimir's Well, in which wisdom and understanding are hidden. The owner of the well is called Mimir. He is full of knowledge because he drinks from the well with the horn Gjallarhorn. Allfather came there and asked for a single drink from the well, but he did not receive it until he had given his eye as a pledge. As it says in the Prophecy of the Seeress:

I know it all, Odin,
where you hid your eye,
in the renowned
Well of Mimir.
Mimir drinks mead
every morning
from the pledge of the Father of the Slain.
Do you know yet—or what?

The ash's third root stands in heaven, and beneath that root is a very holy well called Urd's Well. There the gods have their place of judgment. Every day the Aesir ride up there over Bifrost. It is also called the Aesir's Bridge. The horses of the Aesir have these names: Sleipnir is the best; Odin owns him. He has eight legs. The second is Glad, the third Gyllir, the fourth Glen, the fifth Skeidbrimir, the sixth Silfrintopp, the seventh Sinir, the eighth Gisl, the ninth Falhofnir, the tenth Gulltopp, and the eleventh Lettfeti. Baldr's horse was burned with him, but Thor walks to the court and wades the rivers whose names are these:

Kormt and Ormt
and the two Kerlaugar,
these Thor must wade
every day
when he goes to give judgment
at the ash Yggdrasil,
for the Aesir's Bridge
burns all aflame,
the holy waters seethe."

Then Gangleri said: "Does fire burn over Bifrost?"

Har said: "The red you see in the rainbow is burning fire. Frost-giants and mountain-giants would make their way up into heaven if Bifrost were passable to everyone who wished to cross it. There are many beautiful places in heaven, and divine protection surrounds them all. A beautiful hall stands there beneath the ash beside the well, and from that hall come three maidens called Urd, Verdandi, and Skuld. These maidens shape people's lives. We call them Norns. There are also other Norns, who come to every child that is born to shape its life. Some are of divine descent, others are of the race of elves, and a third kind are of the race of dwarfs, as it says here:

Of widely different births
I say the Norns are;
they have no common kin;
some are descended from the Aesir,
some are descended from elves,
some are Dvalin's daughters."

Then Gangleri said: "If the Norns determine people's fates, they deal them out very unevenly: some have good and prosperous lives, while others have little property or renown; some have long lives, others short."

Har said: "Good Norns of noble descent shape good lives, but when people suffer misfortune, evil Norns are responsible."

Then Gangleri said: “What other remarkable things are there to tell about the ash?”

Har says: “There is much to tell about it. An eagle sits in the branches of the ash, and it knows many things, while between its eyes sits a hawk called Vedrfolnir. A squirrel called Ratatosk runs up and down the ash and carries spiteful words between the eagle and Nidhogg. Four stags run among the branches of the ash and browse on its foliage. Their names are Dain, Dvalin, Duneyr, and Durathror. And so many serpents are in Hvergelmir with Nidhogg that no tongue can count them. As it says here:
The ash Yggdrasil
suffers hardship
greater than people know;
a stag bites it above,
its side rots,
Nidhogg gnaws it below.

And this too is said:
More serpents lie
beneath the ash Yggdrasil
than any foolish ape could imagine.
Goin and Moin,
they are Grafvitnir’s sons,
Grabak and Grafvollud,
Ofnir and Svafnir,
will, I think, forever
eat away the tree’s branches.

It is also said that the Norns who dwell beside Urd’s Well draw water from the well every day, together with the mud that lies around it, and pour it over the ash so that its branches will not wither or rot. This water is so holy that everything that enters the well becomes as white as the membrane called the eggshell lining, which lies against the inside of an eggshell, as it says here:
I know an ash standing,
called Yggdrasil,
a tall, holy tree,
sprinkled with white mud;
from it come dews
that fall in the valleys;
it stands forever green above
Urd’s Well.

The dew that falls from it onto the earth is what people call honeydew, and bees feed on it. Two birds are nourished in Urd’s Well. They are called swans, and from these birds has come the kind of bird that bears that name.”

Then Gangleri said: “You can tell great tidings of heaven. What other chief places are there besides Urd’s Well?”

Har says: “There are many splendid places there. One place there is called Alfheim. The people called Light Elves dwell there, but Dark Elves live down in the earth. They differ from them in appearance, and much more in their nature. Light Elves are fairer to look at than the sun, but Dark Elves are blacker than pitch. There is a place called Breidablik, and no place there is fairer. There is also one called Glitnir, whose walls, posts, and pillars are all of red gold, while its roof is of silver. There is another place called Himinbjorg. It stands at the edge of heaven, at the bridge’s end, where Bifrost reaches heaven. There is also a great place called Valaskjalf. Odin owns that place. The gods built it and roofed it with pure silver, and there in this hall is Hlidskjalf, the high seat so named. When Allfather sits in that seat, he sees over all the worlds. At the southern edge of heaven stands the hall called Gimle, the fairest of all and brighter than the sun. It will stand when both heaven and earth have perished, and good and righteous people will dwell in that place for all ages. As it says in the Seeress’s Prophecy:
I know a hall standing,
fairer than the sun,
roofed with gold,
at Gimle;
there shall faithful
people dwell
and through all time
enjoy delight.”

Then Gangleri said: “What protects that place when Surt’s flame burns heaven and earth?”

Har says: “It is said that there is another heaven to the south and above this heaven, called Andlang, and that a third heaven lies still higher, called Vidblain. We believe this place to be in that heaven. But we believe that only Light Elves dwell in those places now.”

Then Gangleri said: “Where does the wind come from? It is strong enough to stir great seas, and it fans fire. Yet strong as it is, it cannot be seen, so it is strangely made.”

Then Har said: “I can readily tell you that. At the northern edge of heaven sits a giant called Hraesvelg. He has an eagle’s shape, and when he takes flight, winds rise from beneath his wings. As it says here:
Hraesvelg he is called,
who sits at heaven’s edge,
a giant in eagle’s shape;
from his wings
they say the wind comes
over all people.”

Then Gangleri said: “Why is there so great a difference that summer should be hot and winter cold?”

Har says: “A man so learned would not ask that, for everyone can tell you this. But if you alone have become so ignorant that you have not heard it, I will nevertheless give you credit for asking an ignorant question once rather than remaining any longer unaware of what you ought to know. The father of Summer is called Svasud, and he leads so pleasant a life that from his name whatever is gentle is called ‘pleasant.’ But Winter’s father is called either Vindloni or Vindsval. He is the son of Vasad, and those kinsmen were fierce and cold-hearted, and Winter has their disposition.”

Then Gangleri said: “Who are the Aesir in whom people ought to believe?”

Har says: “There are twelve Aesir of divine lineage.”

Then Jafnhar said: “The goddesses are no less holy, and their power is no less.”

Then Thridi said: “Odin is the highest and oldest of the Aesir. He rules all things, and mighty as the other gods are, they all serve him as children serve their father. Frigg is his wife, and she knows people’s destinies, though she utters no prophecies, as it is said here that Odin himself spoke to the god called Loki:
You are mad, Loki,
and out of your mind;
why will you not stop, Loki?
All destinies Frigg,
I believe, knows,
though she herself says nothing.

Odin is called Allfather because he is the father of all the gods. He is also called Valfather, because all those who fall in battle are his adopted sons. He assigns them Valhalla and Vingolf, and they are then called Einherjar. He is also called Hangagud and Haftagud, Farmagud, and he named himself in still more ways when he came to King Geirrod:
I called myself Grim
and Gangleri,
Herjan, Hjalmberi,
Thekk, Thridi,
Thud, Ud,
Helblindi, Har, Sad, Svipal,
Sanngetal,
Herteit, Hnikar,
Bileyg, Baleyg,
Bolverk, Fjolnir,
Grimnir, Glapsvid, Fjolsvid,
Sidhott, Sidskegg,
Sigfather, Hnikud,
Allfather, Atrid, Farmatyr,
Oski, Omi,
Jafnhar, Biflindi,
Gondlir, Harbard,
Svidur, Svidrir,
Jalk, Kjalar, Vidur,
Thror, Ygg, Thund,
Vakr, Skilfing,
Vafud, Hroftatyr,
Gaut, Veratyr.”

Then Gangleri said: “You have given him an enormous number of names, and on my faith, it must take great learning to know the reasons and accounts behind them, and what events gave rise to each of these names.”

Then Har says: “It takes great understanding to recount that in detail. But the briefest explanation to give you is that most names have been given because, as many languages as there are in the world, all peoples feel the need to adapt his name to their own tongue for their invocations and prayers. But some events that gave rise to these names occurred on his journeys, and these have been set down in stories. You will not be able to call yourself a learned man unless you can tell of those great events.”

Then Gangleri said: “What are the names of the other Aesir, what do they occupy themselves with, and what have they done to win renown?”

Har says: “Thor is foremost among them, he who is called Asa-Thor or Driving-Thor. He is the strongest of all gods and men. He rules the realm called Thrudvangar, and his hall is called Bilskirnir. In that hall are five hundred and forty rooms. It is the largest house known to people. As it says in Grimnir’s Sayings:
Five hundred rooms
and forty more,
so I reckon Bilskirnir with its winding ways;
of all the houses
I know to be roofed,
my son’s I know to be greatest.

Thor has two goats, whose names are Tanngnjost and Tanngrisnir, and a chariot in which he drives, and the goats draw the chariot. That is why he is called Driving-Thor. He also has three treasures. One of them is the hammer Mjolnir, which frost giants and mountain giants recognize when it is raised aloft, and that is no wonder. It has crushed many a skull among their fathers and kinsmen. He has another excellent treasure, his belt of strength, and when he buckles it around himself, his divine strength increases by half. The third thing he owns is also of great value: his iron gloves. He cannot do without them when gripping the hammer’s shaft. But no one is so learned that he can recount all Thor’s great deeds. Yet I can tell you so many stories about him that many hours will pass before everything I know has been told.”

Then Gangleri said: “I would like to hear tidings of more of the Aesir.”

Har says: “Another son of Odin is Baldr, and good things are to be told of him. He is the best, and everyone praises him. He is so fair in appearance and so bright that light shines from him, and there is a plant so white that it is likened to Baldr’s eyelashes. It is the whitest of all plants, and from this you may judge the beauty of both his hair and his body. He is the wisest of the Aesir, the fairest-spoken, and the most merciful, but it is his nature that none of his judgments can hold good. He dwells in the place called Breidablik. It is in heaven. Nothing unclean may be in that place, as it says here:
Breidablik it is called,
where Baldr has
built himself halls,
in that land
where I know there lie
the fewest baleful things.

The third god is the one called Njord. He dwells in heaven, in the place called Noatun. He rules the course of the wind and calms sea and fire. He should be invoked for seafaring and for fishing and hunting. He is so rich and prosperous that he can grant people wealth in lands or movable goods. He should be invoked for this. Njord is not of the lineage of the Aesir. He was brought up in Vanaheim, but the Vanir gave him to the gods as a hostage and received in exchange as a hostage the one called Hoenir. He became a means of reconciliation between the gods and the Vanir.

Njord’s wife is called Skadi, the daughter of the giant Thjazi. Skadi wishes to have the dwelling her father owned, which is in certain mountains, in the place called Thrymheim, but Njord wishes to be near the sea. They agreed that they should stay nine nights in Thrymheim and then another nine at Noatun. But when Njord came back to Noatun from the mountain, he spoke this verse:
Hateful to me are the mountains;
I was not there long,
only nine nights;
the howling of wolves
seemed ugly to me
beside the singing of swans.

Then Skadi spoke this verse:
I could not sleep
in the beds by the sea
for the bird’s crying;
it wakes me,
coming from the sea,
each morning, the gull.

Then Skadi went up into the mountains and settled in Thrymheim, and she often travels on skis and carries a bow and shoots wild animals. She is called the ski god or the ski goddess. As it is said:
Thrymheim it is called,
where Thjazi lived,
that most mighty giant;
but now Skadi dwells,
the bright bride of the gods,
on her father’s ancient homestead.

Njord in Noatun later fathered two children. One was called Frey, and the daughter Freyja. They were beautiful to look at and powerful. Frey is the most renowned of the Aesir. He rules over rain and sunshine, and thereby the earth's produce, and it is good to call upon him for fruitful seasons and peace. He also rules over people's prosperity. Freyja is the most renowned of the goddesses. She has a dwelling in heaven called Folkvang. Whenever she rides into battle, she has half the slain, and Odin half, as it says here:

Folkvang it is called,
and there Freyja decides
the choice of seats in the hall;
half the slain
she chooses each day,
and Odin has half.

Her hall, Sessrumnir, is large and beautiful. When she travels, she drives two cats and sits in a chariot. She is most ready to hear those who call upon her, and from her name comes the title of honour by which women of rank are called ladies. She was very fond of love poetry. It is good to call upon her in matters of love."

Then Gangleri said: "These Aesir seem very mighty to me, and it is no wonder that great power attends you, since you know the nature of the gods and know to whom each prayer should be addressed. Are there still more gods?"

Har said: "There is another of the Aesir called Tyr. He is the boldest and most courageous, and he has great power over victory in battles. It is good for valiant men to call upon him. It is a saying that a man is brave as Tyr when he surpasses other men and holds nothing back. He was also wise, so that a man who is wisest is said to be wise as Tyr. Here is one sign of his boldness: when the Aesir enticed the wolf Fenrir into letting them put the fetter Gleipnir on him, he did not trust them to release him until they placed Tyr's hand in his mouth as a pledge. When the Aesir would not release him, he bit the hand off at the place now called the wolf-joint. Tyr is therefore one-handed, and he is not called a reconciler of men.

One is called Bragi. He is renowned for wisdom, and above all for eloquence and skill with words. He knows most about poetry, and after him poetry is called bragr. From his name, too, a man or woman whose eloquence surpasses that of others is called the bragr of men or women. His wife is Idunn. In her wooden box she keeps the apples that the gods must bite into when they grow old, and then they all become young. So it will be until Ragnarok."

Then Gangleri said: "It seems to me that the gods have a great deal resting on Idunn's care and faithfulness."

Then Har said with a laugh: "That nearly brought disaster once. I shall be able to tell you about it, but first you must hear more names of the Aesir.

One is called Heimdall. He is called the white god. He is great and holy. Nine maidens bore him as their son, and they were all sisters. He is also called Hallinskidi and Gullintanni. His teeth were of gold. His horse is called Gulltopp. He lives at the place called Himinbjorg, beside Bifrost. He is the gods' watchman and sits there at heaven's edge to guard the bridge against the mountain giants. He needs less sleep than a bird. He can see a hundred leagues away, as well by night as by day. He can also hear grass growing on the earth and wool on sheep, and everything that makes a louder sound. He has the trumpet called Gjallarhorn, and its blast is heard throughout all worlds. Heimdall's sword is called a man's head. It is said here:

Himinbjorg it is called,
and there Heimdall
is said to rule the sanctuaries;
there the gods' watchman,
in his peaceful hall,
gladly drinks the good mead.

And he himself says in Heimdall's Chant:

I am the child of nine mothers,
I am the son of nine sisters.

One of the Aesir is called Hod. He is blind. He is very strong, but the gods would wish that there were no need to name this god, for his handiwork will long be remembered among gods and men.

One is called Vidar, the silent god. He has a thick shoe. He is almost as strong as Thor. The gods place great trust in him in every trial.

One is called Ali or Vali, the son of Odin and Rind. He is bold in battle and very fortunate in his shooting.

One is called Ull, the son of Sif and stepson of Thor. He is so good an archer and so skilled on skis that no one can compete with him. He is also handsome and has a warrior's accomplishments. It is also good to call upon him in single combat.

Forseti is the name of the son of Baldr and Nanna, Nep's daughter. He has the hall in heaven called Glitnir. All who come to him with difficult disputes leave reconciled. It is the best place of judgment among gods and men. It says here:

Glitnir is the hall's name;
it is supported by gold
and roofed with silver as well;
there Forseti
dwells most days
and settles every dispute.

There is another counted among the Aesir, whom some call the slanderer of the Aesir, the originator of deceits, and the disgrace of all gods and men. He is named Loki or Lopt, the son of the giant Farbauti. His mother is called Laufey or Nal. His brothers are Byleist and Helblindi. Loki is handsome and beautiful to look at, evil in disposition, and very changeable in his ways. He had more of the wisdom called cunning than other men, and tricks for every purpose. He was always getting the Aesir into serious trouble, and often freed them through his schemes. His wife is called Sigyn, and their son Nari or Narvi.

Loki had still more children. There was a giantess in Jotunheim called Angrboda. With her Loki fathered three children. One was the wolf Fenrir, the second Jormungand, who is the Midgard Serpent, and the third Hel. When the gods learned that these three siblings were being brought up in Jotunheim, and traced through prophecies that great harm and misfortune would come to them from these siblings, they all thought much evil was to be expected, first because of their mother's ancestry, and still worse because of their father's. Then Allfather sent the gods to seize the children and bring them to him. When they came to him, he threw the serpent into the deep sea that surrounds all lands. That serpent grew so large that he lies in the midst of the ocean encircling all lands and bites his own tail.

He threw Hel into Niflheim and gave her authority over nine worlds, so that she should assign lodgings to all who were sent to her, namely those who die of sickness or old age. She has great dwellings there, and her enclosing walls are exceedingly high and her gates large. Her hall is called Eljudnir, her dish Hunger, her knife Famine, her manservant Ganglati, her maidservant Ganglot, her threshold over which one enters Stumbling Pit, her bed Sickbed, and her bed hangings Gleaming Misfortune. She is half blue-black and half flesh-coloured. By this she is easily recognized, and she looks rather downcast and grim.

The Aesir brought the wolf up at home, and Tyr alone had the courage to go to him and give him food. But when the gods saw how much he grew each day, and all prophecies said that he was destined to harm them, the Aesir devised a plan: they made a very strong fetter, which they called Laeding, and brought it to the wolf and asked him to try his strength against it. The wolf thought this was no match for his strength and let them do as they wished. But the first time the wolf strained against it, the fetter broke. Thus he freed himself from Laeding.

Next the Aesir made another fetter, twice as strong, which they called Dromi. Again they asked the wolf to try this fetter, saying that he would become very renowned for his strength if such massive workmanship could not hold him. The wolf reflected that this fetter was very strong, but also that his strength had increased since he broke Laeding. It occurred to him that he would have to take risks if he was to become famous, and he let them put the fetter on him. When the Aesir declared themselves ready, the wolf shook himself, struck the fetter against the ground, strained hard, and kicked against it, breaking the fetter so that its fragments flew far away. Thus he burst out of Dromi. Since then it has been a saying that someone frees himself from Laeding or bursts out of Dromi when something is pursued with great effort.

After that the Aesir feared that they would not be able to bind the wolf. Then Allfather sent the one named Skirnir, Frey's messenger, down into Svartalfheim to some dwarfs, and had them make the fetter called Gleipnir. It was made of six things: the sound of a cat's footfall, a woman's beard, a mountain's roots, a bear's sinews, a fish's breath, and a bird's spittle. And although you have not heard these things before, you can now readily find clear evidence that you are not being lied to. You must have seen that a woman has no beard, that a running cat makes no sound, and that there are no roots beneath a mountain. And on my faith, everything I have told you is equally true, though there are some things you cannot put to the test."

Then Gangleri said: "I can certainly understand that this is true. I can see these things you have now given as examples. But how was the fetter fashioned?"

Har said: "I can readily tell you that. The fetter was smooth and soft as a strip of silk, but as firm and strong as you are now about to hear. When the fetter was brought to the Aesir, they thanked the messenger warmly for carrying out his errand. Then the Aesir went out onto the lake called Amsvartnir, to the islet called Lyngvi, and called the wolf to come with them. They showed him the silken band and asked him to break it, saying that it was somewhat stronger than its thickness might suggest. Each passed it to the next and tested it with the strength of his hands, and it did not break. Even so, they said the wolf would be able to break it.

Then the wolf answered: 'It seems to me that I shall gain no fame from this ribbon, even if I break such a slender band apart. But if it has been made with craft and deceit, though it looks slight, that band shall not go on my legs.'

Then the Aesir said that he would quickly break a slender silken band, since he had previously broken great iron fetters. 'But if you cannot break this band, then you will be unable to frighten the gods. We shall then release you.'

The wolf said: 'If you bind me so that I cannot free myself, you will play such tricks that it will be a long time before I get help from you. I am unwilling to let this band be put on me, but rather than have you question my courage, let one of you put his hand in my mouth as a pledge that this is done without deceit.'

Each of the Aesir looked at the others, and now they felt they faced a double difficulty. None was willing to offer his hand until Tyr held out his right hand and placed it in the wolf's mouth. When the wolf strained against it, the band tightened, and the harder he struggled, the more tightly the band cut into him. Then they all laughed except Tyr. He lost his hand.

When the Aesir saw that the wolf was securely bound, they took the cord attached to the fetter, called Gelgja, and drew it through a great stone slab called Gjoll, and fixed the slab deep down in the earth. Then they took a great stone and drove it still farther into the earth. That stone is called Thviti, and they used it as an anchoring peg. The wolf gaped fiercely and struggled violently, wanting to bite them. They thrust a sword into his mouth. Its hilt rests against his lower jaw and its point against his upper jaw. It is the prop that holds his jaws apart. He howls terribly, and drool runs from his mouth. This is the river called Van. There he lies until Ragnarok."

Then Gangleri said: "Loki fathered an extraordinarily evil brood, but all these siblings are mighty in their own right. Why did the Aesir not kill the wolf, when they expect evil from him?"

Har answered: "The gods held their sanctuaries and places of peace in such reverence that they would not defile them with the wolf's blood, though the prophecies say that he will be Odin's death."

Then Gangleri said: “Who are the goddesses?”

Har says: “Frigg is foremost. She owns the dwelling called Fensalir, and it is very splendid. The second is Saga. She lives at Sokkvabekk, and that is a great place. The third is Eir. She is the best physician. The fourth is Gefjon. She is a virgin, and those who die as virgins serve her. The fifth is Fulla. She too is a virgin and wears her hair loose, with a gold band around her head. She carries Frigg’s casket, looks after her footwear, and shares her secret counsels.

“Freyja ranks highest alongside Frigg. She married a man called Od. Their daughter is Hnoss. She is so beautiful that things which are beautiful and precious are called hnossir after her name. Od went away on long journeys, and Freyja weeps for him, and her tears are red gold. Freyja has many names, because she gave herself various names when she travelled among unfamiliar peoples in search of Od. She is called Mardoll and Horn, Gefn, Syr. Freyja owned Brisingamen. She is also called Vanadis.

“The seventh is Sjofn. She takes great care to turn people’s hearts to love, both women’s and men’s, and from her name love is called sjafni. The eighth is Lofn. She is so gentle and so gracious to those who invoke her that she obtains permission from Allfather or Frigg for women and men to come together, even if this was previously forbidden or flatly refused. From her name comes the word lof, ‘permission’, and also the fact that she is much praised by people. The ninth is Var. She listens to people’s oaths and the private agreements women and men make with one another. For this reason such agreements are called varar. She also takes vengeance on those who break them. The tenth is Vor. She is wise and inquisitive, so that nothing can be hidden from her. It is a saying that a woman becomes vor, ‘aware’, of something when she learns of it.

“The eleventh is Syn. She guards the doors of the hall and shuts them against those who must not enter. She is also appointed to defend at assemblies those cases which she wishes to refute. Hence the saying that syn, ‘denial’, is brought forward when someone denies something. The twelfth is Hlin. She is appointed to watch over those whom Frigg wishes to save from some danger. Hence the saying that someone who finds refuge hleinir. The thirteenth is Snotra. She is wise and gracious in manner. From her name, a woman or man who is restrained in conduct is called snotr. The fourteenth is Gna. Frigg sends her into various worlds on her errands. She has a horse that runs through air and over water, called Hofvarpnir. Once, when she was riding, some Vanir saw her riding through the air. Then one said:

‘What flies there,
what travels there,
or glides through the air?’

“She answers:

‘I do not fly,
though I travel
and glide through the air
on Hofvarpnir,
whom Hamskerpir
sired on Gardrofa.’

“From Gna’s name, something that rises high is said to gnæfa. Sol and Bil are counted among the goddesses, but their nature has been described before.”

“There are still others whose task is to serve in Valhalla, bringing drink and looking after the tableware and drinking vessels. They are named as follows in Grimnismal:

‘Hrist and Mist
I wish to bring me a horn,
Skeggjold and Skogul,
Hild and Thrud,
Hlokk and Herfjotur,
Goll and Geirahod,
Randgrid and Radgrid,
and Reginleif;
they bring ale to the Einherjar.’

“These are called Valkyries. Odin sends them to every battle. They choose which men are to die and determine victory. Gunn and Rota and the youngest of the Norns, called Skuld, always ride out to choose the slain and determine the killings. Jord, Thor’s mother, and Rind, Vali’s mother, are counted among the goddesses.”

“There was a man called Gymir, and his wife was Aurboda. She was of the race of mountain giants. Their daughter is Gerd, who was the most beautiful of all women. One day Frey had gone into Hlidskjalf and was looking out over all the worlds. When he looked north, he saw a great and beautiful house on a certain estate. A woman was walking towards that house, and when she raised her arms and opened the door before her, light shone from her arms over both air and sea, and all the worlds were lit up by her. His great presumption in sitting in that holy seat was thus punished: he went away full of sorrow. When he came home, he said nothing. He did not sleep; he did not drink. Nor did anyone dare to ask him to speak.

“Then Njord had Skirnir, Frey’s attendant, summoned to him and told him to go to Frey, ask him to speak, and find out with whom he was so angry that he would speak to no one. Skirnir said he would go, though unwillingly, and said that he expected harsh answers from him. When he came to Frey, he asked why Frey was so downcast and would speak to no one. Then Frey answered and said that he had seen a beautiful woman, and on her account he was so sorrowful that he would not live long if he could not have her—‘and now you must go and ask for her hand on my behalf and bring her home here, whether her father wishes it or not, and I will reward you well for it.’

“Then Skirnir answered, saying that he would undertake the errand, but Frey must give him his sword. It was such a good sword that it fought by itself. Frey did not let this stand in the way and gave him the sword. Then Skirnir went and asked for the woman’s hand on his behalf and obtained her promise. Nine nights later she was to come to the place called Barrey and there enter into marriage with Frey. When Skirnir told Frey the outcome of his errand, Frey spoke this verse:

‘Long is one night,
long is a second;
how can I endure three?
Often a month
has seemed shorter to me
than this half-night of waiting.’

“This is why Frey was so unarmed when he fought Beli and killed him with a stag’s antler.”

Then Gangleri said: “It is a great wonder that such a lord as Frey should be willing to give away a sword when he had no other equally good. That was a tremendous disadvantage to him when he fought the one called Beli. On my faith, I know he must then have regretted that gift.”

Then Har answers: “It mattered little when he and Beli met. Frey could have killed him with his bare hand. A time will come when Frey will feel the loss of his sword more keenly, when the sons of Muspell come raiding.”

Then Gangleri said: “You say that all those men who have fallen in battle since the beginning of the world have now come to Odin in Valhalla. What does he have to give them for food? I would have thought there must be a very great multitude there.”

Then Har answers: “What you say is true: there is a very great multitude there. But there will be many more yet, and even so they will seem too few when the wolf comes. Yet there is never so great a throng in Valhalla that the meat of the boar called Saehrimnir cannot suffice for them. He is boiled every day and whole again by evening. But as for the question you now ask, I think it likely that few are wise enough to give a true account of this. The cook is called Andhrimnir, and the cauldron Eldhrimnir. As it is said here:

‘Andhrimnir
has Saehrimnir
boiled in Eldhrimnir,
the best of meats;
but few know
on what the Einherjar feed.’”

Then Gangleri said: “Does Odin have the same fare as the Einherjar?”

Har says: “The food set on his table he gives to two wolves he owns, called Geri and Freki. He needs no food: wine is both drink and food to him. As it says here:

‘Geri and Freki
are fed by the battle-seasoned,
glorious Father of Hosts;
but on wine alone
Odin, splendid in arms,
lives forever.

“Two ravens sit on his shoulders and tell into his ears all the news they see or hear. They are called Huginn and Munin. At dawn he sends them to fly over the whole world, and they return at the time of the morning meal. From this he learns much news. For this reason people call him the Raven God, as it is said:

‘Huginn and Munin
fly every day
over the vast earth;
I fear for Huginn,
that he may not return,
yet I fear more for Munin.’”

Then Gangleri said: “What do the Einherjar have to drink that lasts them as plentifully as their food, or is water drunk there?”

Then Har says: “That is a strange question you ask now, whether Allfather would invite kings or earls or other mighty men to his home and give them water to drink. And on my faith, I know that many a man comes to Valhalla who would think he had paid dearly for his drink of water, if there were no better welcome to be found there, after enduring wounds and agony until his death. I can tell you something different about it. A goat called Heidrun stands on top of Valhalla and browses on the foliage of the branches of that very famous tree called Laerad. From her teats flows mead with which she fills a vat every day. There is so much that all the Einherjar can drink their fill.”

Then Gangleri said: “That is an exceedingly useful goat for them. It must be an exceptionally good tree that she browses on.”

Then Har said: “Still more remarkable is the stag Eikthyrnir, who stands on Valhalla and browses on the branches of that tree. From his antlers drips so much liquid that it flows down into Hvergelmir, and from there flow the rivers called Sid, Vid, Saekin, Ekin, Svol, Gunnthro, Fjorm, Fimbulthul, Gipul, Gopul, Gomul, Geirvimul. These flow through the dwellings of the Aesir. These others are also named: Thyn, Vin, Tholl, Holl, Grad, Gunnthrain, Nyt, Not, Nonn, Hronn, Vina, Vegsvinn, Thjodnuma.”

Then Gangleri said: “These are marvellous things you have just told me. Valhalla must be an enormous house. There must often be a great crush at its doors.”

Then Har answers: “Why do you not ask how many doors the hall has, or how large they are? If you hear that told, you will say that it would be a wonder if everyone who wished could not go in and out. But it can truly be said that there is no less room to take one’s place inside than to enter it. Here you may hear it in Grimnismal:

‘Five hundred doors
and forty more,
I believe there are in Valhalla;
eight hundred Einherjar
go out at once through a single doorway
when they go to fight the wolf.’”

Then Gangleri said: “There is a very great multitude in Valhalla. On my faith, Odin is a very great chieftain, ruling so vast an army. But how do the Einherjar amuse themselves when they are not drinking?”

Har said: “Every day, when they have dressed, they put on their armour and go out into the courtyard and fight, each striking the other down. That is their sport. And when the time for the morning meal draws near, they ride home to Valhalla and sit down to drink, as it says here:

All the Einherjar
in Odin’s fields
strike one another every day;
they choose the slain
and ride from battle,
then sit together reconciled.

“But what you said is true. Odin is mighty indeed. There are many examples of this. So it is said here in the words of the Aesir themselves:

Yggdrasil’s ash,
it is the foremost of trees,
and Skidbladnir of ships,
Odin of the Aesir,
and Sleipnir of horses,
Bifrost of bridges,
and Bragi of poets,
Habrok of hawks,
and Garm of dogs.”

Then Gangleri said: “Who owns that horse, Sleipnir, and what is there to tell about him?”

Har said: “You know nothing of Sleipnir, nor do you know the events that brought him into being, but you will think them worth telling. It was early in the first days of the gods’ settlement, when the gods had established Midgard and built Valhalla, that a certain builder came there and offered to build them a stronghold in three half-years, so sound that it would be secure and safe against mountain giants and frost giants, even if they made their way into Midgard. But as his payment he stipulated that he should have Freyja, and he also wanted the sun and moon.

“Then the Aesir went into discussion and took counsel, and this bargain was made with the builder: he should have what he asked for if he could finish the stronghold in one winter, but if any part of it remained unfinished on the first day of summer, he would forfeit his payment. He was to accept no man’s help with the work. When they told him these terms, he asked them to allow him the help of his horse, which was called Svadilfari, and it was Loki who advised that this concession be made to him.

“He began building the stronghold on the first day of winter, and at night he hauled stone with the horse. The Aesir thought it a great marvel how huge the rocks were that this horse hauled, and the horse did half as much heavy work again as the builder. Their bargain had been made before reliable witnesses and confirmed with many solemn oaths, for the giant thought it unsafe to be among the Aesir without a pledge of peace if Thor should come home. At that time Thor had gone east to fight trolls.

“As the winter passed, the building of the stronghold advanced rapidly, and it was so high and strong that it could not be stormed. When three days remained before summer, the gateway was nearly finished. Then the gods sat down on their judgment seats and sought counsel, asking one another who had advised giving Freyja in marriage in Jotunheim, or so ruining the sky and heavens as to take the sun and moon from them and give them to the giants. They all agreed that the one who must have advised this was he who advises most evil things, Loki, Laufey’s son. They declared that he deserved a terrible death unless he could find some way for the builder to forfeit his payment, and they threatened Loki with violence. When he grew frightened, he swore oaths that he would arrange for the builder to lose his payment, whatever it cost him.

“That same evening, when the builder drove out to fetch stone with the horse Svadilfari, a mare ran out of a forest towards the horse and neighed at him. When the horse realized what sort of horse this was, he went wild, snapped his ropes and ran towards the mare. She fled into the forest, and the builder followed, trying to catch the horse. These horses ran about all night, and the work was held up that night; the following day, too, less was built than before.

“When the builder saw that the work would not be finished, he flew into a giant’s rage. When the Aesir knew for certain that a mountain giant had come among them, the oaths were no longer respected. They called on Thor, and he came at once, and immediately afterwards the hammer Mjolnir was raised aloft. He paid the builder his wages then, with neither sun nor moon: instead he denied him any further dwelling in Jotunheim, striking the first blow so that his skull shattered into tiny fragments, and sending him down beneath Niflheim.

“But Loki had had such dealings with Svadilfari that some time later he bore a foal. It was grey and had eight legs, and that horse is the best among gods and men. As it says in the Seeress’s Prophecy:

Then all the powers went
to their judgment seats,
the most holy gods,
and considered this:
who had mingled all the sky
with treachery,
or given Od’s bride
to the giant race.

Oaths were broken,
pledges and solemn vows,
all the binding agreements
that had passed between them;
Thor alone struck there,
swollen with rage;
he seldom sits still
when he hears of such things.”

Then Gangleri said: “What is there to tell about Skidbladnir, since it is the best of ships? Is no ship as large as it?”

Har said: “Skidbladnir is the best of ships and made with the greatest craftsmanship, but Naglfar is the largest ship. It belongs to Muspell. Certain dwarfs, the sons of Ivaldi, made Skidbladnir and gave the ship to Frey. It is so large that all the Aesir can board it with their weapons and war gear, and as soon as its sail is raised it has a favourable wind, wherever it is to go. When it is not to be taken to sea, it is made of so many parts and with such skill that it can be folded up like a cloth and kept in one’s pouch.”

Then Gangleri said: “Skidbladnir is a fine ship, but a great deal of magic must have been used before such a thing could be made. Has Thor never travelled anywhere and encountered something so mighty or powerful that it proved too much for him through strength or magic?”

Then Har said: “Few people, I imagine, can tell of that, though many things have seemed difficult to him. But even if something has been so powerful or strong that Thor could gain no victory over it, there is no need to tell of it, for there are many examples showing that Thor is the mightiest, and everyone is bound to believe it.”

Then Gangleri said: “It seems to me that I must have asked you about something no one is capable of recounting.”

Then Jafnhar said: “We have heard accounts of events that seem to us unlikely to be true. But someone sitting close by here will know how to give a true account, and you may believe that he will not lie now for the first time, having never lied before.”

Then Gangleri said: “I will stand here and listen, if any answer can be found to this question. Otherwise I declare you defeated, if you cannot tell me what I ask.”

Then Thridi said: “It is plain now that he wants to know these events, though we take no pleasure in telling them. This tale begins when Thor the Charioteer set out driving his goats, and with him went the god called Loki. In the evening they came to a farmer’s house and found lodging there for the night. That evening Thor took his goats and slaughtered them both. Afterwards they were flayed and put into a kettle. When the meat was cooked, Thor and his companions sat down to supper. Thor invited the farmer, his wife and their children to eat with him. The farmer’s son was called Thjalfi, and his daughter Roskva.

“Then Thor laid the goatskins away from the fire and said that the farmer and his household should throw the bones onto the goatskins. Thjalfi, the farmer’s son, took hold of a goat’s thighbone, split it with his knife and broke it open for the marrow. Thor stayed there that night. In the early hours before dawn he got up and dressed, took the hammer Mjolnir, raised it and hallowed the goatskins. Then the goats stood up, but one was lame in a hind leg. Thor noticed this and said that the farmer or someone in his household must have handled the goat’s bones carelessly. He found that the thighbone was broken.

“There is no need to dwell on this. Everyone can imagine how frightened the farmer must have been when he saw Thor lower his brows over his eyes; from what he could see of the eyes themselves, he thought he would fall dead at their gaze alone. Thor tightened his hands around the hammer’s shaft until his knuckles turned white. The farmer and his whole household did what was to be expected: they cried out desperately, begged to be spared, and offered everything they owned as compensation. When he saw their terror, his rage left him, and he grew calm. He accepted their children, Thjalfi and Roskva, from them in settlement, and they became his bound servants and have followed him ever since.

He left the goats there and began his journey east into Jotunheim, all the way to the sea, and then crossed that deep sea. When he reached land, he went ashore, and with him Loki, Thjalfi and Roskva. When they had walked a little while, they came upon a great forest. They walked all that day until dark. Thjalfi was the swiftest runner of all men. He carried Thor’s provision bag, but food was scarce.

When darkness had fallen, they looked for somewhere to spend the night and came upon an enormous hall. The doorway was at one end and as wide as the hall itself. There they sought a night’s lodging. But around midnight there was a great earthquake. The ground jolted beneath them and the building shook. Then Thor got up and called to his companions. They felt their way about and found a side chamber on the right, halfway along the hall, and went into it. Thor sat in the doorway, while the others stayed farther inside, behind him, and were frightened. Thor gripped the hammer’s shaft, ready to defend himself. Then they heard a great rumbling and roaring.

At daybreak Thor went outside and saw a man lying in the forest a short distance away, and he was no small man. He was asleep and snoring loudly. Then Thor thought he understood what had made the noise during the night. He fastened his belt of strength around himself, and his divine strength increased. Just then the man awoke and quickly stood up, and it is said that for once Thor hesitated to strike him with the hammer, and asked his name. He said his name was Skrymir.

“But I have no need,” he said, “to ask your name. I recognize that you are Thor of the Aesir. But have you dragged my glove away?”

Then Skrymir reached out and picked up the glove. Thor saw that this was what he had taken for a hall during the night, and the side chamber was the thumb of the glove.

Skrymir asked whether Thor would like his company on the journey, and Thor agreed. Then Skrymir untied his provision bag and prepared to eat his morning meal, while Thor and his companions ate elsewhere. Skrymir then suggested that they pool their provisions, and Thor agreed. So Skrymir tied all their provisions into one bag and put it on his back. He walked ahead during the day, taking rather long strides, and late in the evening Skrymir found them a place to sleep beneath a great oak. Then Skrymir told Thor that he wanted to lie down to sleep.

“But you take the provision bag and prepare your supper.”

Immediately afterwards Skrymir fell asleep and snored loudly. Thor took the provision bag and tried to untie it, but, incredible as it may seem, he could undo no knot and move no strap-end so that it was any looser than before. When he saw that this effort was getting him nowhere, he grew angry, seized the hammer Mjolnir in both hands, stepped forward with one foot towards where Skrymir lay, and struck him on the head. But Skrymir awoke and asked whether a leaf had fallen onto his head, or whether they had eaten and were ready for bed. Thor said they were just going to sleep. They then went beneath another oak. To tell you the truth, they did not sleep without fear.

At midnight Thor heard Skrymir snoring and sleeping so soundly that the forest resounded. Then he got up and went over to him, swung the hammer swiftly and fiercely, and struck him squarely on the crown of his head. He felt the face of the hammer sink deep into the head. But at that moment Skrymir awoke and said: “What is it now? Did an acorn fall onto my head, or what is happening with you, Thor?”

Thor quickly stepped back and replied that he had just woken up. He said it was midnight and there was still time to sleep. Then Thor thought that if he got the chance to strike him a third blow, Skrymir should never see him again. He now lay watching to see whether Skrymir fell soundly asleep once more.

A little before dawn he heard that Skrymir must have fallen asleep. Then he got up and rushed over to him, swung the hammer with all his strength, and struck the temple that faced upwards. The hammer sank in up to its shaft. But Skrymir sat up, stroked his cheek and said: “Could there be some birds sitting in the tree above me? When I awoke, I had the feeling that some debris from the twigs had fallen onto my head. Are you awake, Thor? It must be time to get up and dress. You have no long journey ahead of you now to the stronghold called Utgard. I have heard you whispering among yourselves that I was no small man in stature, but you will see larger men there if you come to Utgard.

“Now I will give you some good advice. Do not act too grandly. Utgard-Loki’s retainers will hardly tolerate boastful talk from such little fellows. Otherwise, turn back, and I think that is the better course for you to take. But if you wish to go on, make your way east, while my road now lies north to those mountains you can see.”

Skrymir took the provision bag, threw it onto his back and turned away from them into the forest. There is no mention of the Aesir wishing him a happy reunion.

Thor and his companions continued on their way and walked until midday. Then they saw a stronghold standing on some plains, and they had to tilt their heads back against their backs before they could see over its top. They went up to the stronghold, and there was a barred gate across the entrance, shut fast. Thor went up to the gate and could not open it, but as they struggled to get into the stronghold, they squeezed between the bars and so got inside. They then saw a great hall and went towards it. The door was open. They went in and saw many men sitting along two benches, most of them exceedingly large. Next they came before King Utgard-Loki and greeted him, but he was slow to look at them, and he bared his teeth in a grin and said:

“News takes a long time to travel a long way. Or am I mistaken—is this little fellow Driving-Thor? Still, you must be greater than you look to me. What feats do you and your companions consider yourselves ready to perform? No one may stay here with us unless he has some skill or accomplishment beyond that of most men.”

Then the one who had come in last, whose name was Loki, said: “I have a skill I am quite ready to put to the test: there is no one in here who can eat his food faster than I can.”

Utgard-Loki answered: “That is a skill, if you can make good on it, and we shall put this skill to the test.” He called down the bench that the one named Logi should come out onto the floor and compete against Loki. A trough was brought onto the hall floor and filled with meat. Loki sat down at one end and Logi at the other, and each ate as fast as he could until they met in the middle of the trough. Loki had eaten all the meat off the bones, but Logi had eaten all the meat and the bones as well, and also the trough. It now seemed clear to everyone that Loki had lost the contest.

Then Utgard-Loki asked what feats the young man could perform, and Thjalfi said that he would try running a few races against anyone Utgard-Loki chose. Utgard-Loki said that this was a fine skill, and that there was all the more reason to hope he was well endowed with speed if he was to accomplish this feat. Nevertheless, he would soon have it put to the test. Utgard-Loki stood up and went outside, where there was a good course for running across a level plain. He called over a young fellow named Hugi and told him to race against Thjalfi. They ran the first race, and Hugi was so far ahead that he turned back to meet Thjalfi at the end of the course.

Then Utgard-Loki said: “You will have to exert yourself more, Thjalfi, if you are to win the contest. Still, it is true that no men have come here whom I consider swifter on their feet than you.”

They ran a second race, and when Hugi reached the end of the course and turned back, Thjalfi was a long bowshot away.

Then Utgard-Loki said: “I think Thjalfi runs well, but I do not now believe he will win the contest. Still, we shall see when they run the third race.”

They ran again, but when Hugi reached the end of the course and turned back, Thjalfi had not yet reached the halfway point. Then everyone said that this contest was decided.

Utgard-Loki then asked Thor which of his feats he would wish to display before them, since people had told such great tales of his mighty deeds. Thor said that he would most like to take on someone in a drinking contest. Utgard-Loki said that this could easily be arranged, and he went into the hall and called his cupbearer, telling him to fetch the penalty horn from which the members of his household were accustomed to drink. The cupbearer came forward with the horn and placed it in Thor’s hand.

Then Utgard-Loki said: “It is considered good drinking to empty this horn in a single draught. Some men empty it in two, but no one is so poor a drinker that he cannot empty it in three.”

Thor looked at the horn, and it did not seem large to him, though it was rather long. He was very thirsty, and he began to drink, swallowing in great gulps and thinking that he would not need to bend to the horn again. But when his breath ran out and he lifted his head from the horn and looked to see how his drinking had gone, it seemed to him that there could be very little difference between the level in the horn now and what it had been before.

Then Utgard-Loki said: “Well drunk, though not very much. If I had been told that Thor of the Aesir would drink no more than that, I would not have believed it. Still, I know that you will want to empty it in a second draught.”

Thor made no answer. He put the horn to his mouth, intending now to take a greater draught, and strained at his drinking as long as his breath lasted. Yet he still found that the tip of the horn would not rise as high as he wished. When he took the horn from his mouth and looked into it, it seemed to him that he had lowered the level less than the first time. There was now enough space below the rim to carry the horn without spilling.

Then Utgard-Loki said: “What is this, Thor? Are you holding back more for a single draught than will be to your advantage? It seems to me that if you are now to empty the horn at the third draught, this will have to be reckoned the greatest. But you will not be entitled here among us to be called as great a man as the Aesir call you, unless you achieve more in other contests than it seems to me you will in this one.”

Then Thor grew angry. He put the horn to his mouth and drank as fiercely as he could, straining at the draught with all his might. When he looked into the horn, there was now at last some noticeable difference. He handed the horn back and would drink no more.

Then Utgard-Loki said: “It is clear now that your might is not as great as we thought. But would you like to try more contests? We can see that you will gain nothing from this one.”

Thor answered: “I can still try a few more contests, though when I was at home among the Aesir I would have thought it strange if draughts like these were called so small. But what contest will you offer me now?”

Then Utgard-Loki said: “Young boys here do something that will seem of little account: they lift my cat off the ground. I would never have thought of suggesting such a thing to Thor of the Aesir if I had not already seen that you are much less capable than I thought.”

A grey cat, rather large, then bounded out onto the hall floor. Thor went up to it, put his hand beneath the middle of its belly, and lifted. But the cat arched its back as Thor raised his hand. When Thor reached up as high as he possibly could, the cat lifted one foot, and Thor could accomplish no more in this contest.

Then Utgard-Loki said: “This contest has gone as I expected. The cat is rather large, while Thor is short and small beside the great men who are here with us.”

Then Thor said: “Small as you call me, let someone come forward now and wrestle with me! Now I am angry.”

Utgard-Loki answered, looking along the benches: “I see no man in here who would not consider wrestling with you beneath him.” Then he added: “Let us see first. Call my old foster-mother Elli here, and let Thor wrestle with her if he wishes. She has thrown men who seemed to me no less strong than Thor.”

An old woman then came into the hall. Utgard-Loki said that she was to wrestle with Thor of the Aesir. There is no need to make a long story of it. The wrestling went in such a way that the harder Thor strained, the more firmly she stood. Then the old woman began to try her holds, and Thor grew unsteady on his feet. Their struggle was very fierce, and it was not long before Thor fell onto one knee. Utgard-Loki stepped forward and told them to stop wrestling, saying that Thor would have no need to challenge any more men in his household to wrestle. By then night was approaching. Utgard-Loki showed Thor and his companions to their seats, and they stayed there all night, generously entertained.

In the morning, as soon as day broke, Thor and his companions got up, dressed, and prepared to leave. Utgard-Loki came and had a table set for them. There was no lack of generous hospitality, food, or drink. When they had eaten, they set off on their journey. Utgard-Loki accompanied them outside and walked with them out of the stronghold. At their parting, Utgard-Loki spoke to Thor and asked how he thought his journey had turned out, and whether he had met anyone more powerful than himself. Thor said that he could not deny that he had suffered great disgrace in their dealings.

“But I know that you will consider me a man of little consequence, and that displeases me.”

Then Utgard-Loki said: “Now that you have come out of the stronghold, I shall tell you the truth: if I live and have my way, you will never enter it again. And on my faith, you would never have entered it at all if I had known beforehand that you had such strength in you, and that you would bring us so close to great disaster. But I have deceived your sight. The first time was in the forest, when I came to meet you. When you were to untie the food bag, I had bound it with iron wire, and you could not find where to undo it. After that you struck me three blows with your hammer. The first was the lightest, yet it was so great that it would have been enough to kill me if it had landed. But where you saw a flat-topped mountain beside my hall, and saw three square valleys cut into it, one the deepest, those were the marks of your hammer. I brought the mountain in front of the blows, but you did not see that.

“So it was also with the contests you fought against my household. First there was the one Loki undertook. He was very hungry and ate quickly, but the one called Logi was wildfire, and he burned up the trough no less quickly than the meat. And when Thjalfi raced against the one called Hugi, that was my thought, and Thjalfi could hardly hope to compete with him in speed.

“And when you drank from the horn and thought you were making little headway—on my faith, a marvel happened then which I would not have believed possible. The other end of the horn was out in the sea, but you did not see that. Now, when you reach the sea, you will be able to see how much you have lowered it by your drinking. That is now called the ebb.”

He went on: “I thought it no less remarkable when you lifted the cat, and to tell you the truth, everyone who saw it was frightened when you lifted one of its feet off the ground. For that cat was not what it seemed to you. It was the Midgard Serpent, which lies around all lands, and it was scarcely long enough for its tail and head to touch the earth. You reached up so high that there was little distance left to heaven.

“And it was also a great marvel in the wrestling that you held out so long and fell no further than onto one knee when you wrestled with Elli. For no one has ever existed, and no one ever will, who, if he lives long enough to await old age, will not be brought down by it.

“And now, to tell you the truth, we shall part, and it will be better for both sides if you do not come to visit me again. Another time I shall defend my stronghold with tricks like these, or others, so that you will gain no power over me.”

When Thor heard this speech, he seized his hammer and raised it in the air, but as he was about to strike, Utgard-Loki was nowhere to be seen. He turned back towards the stronghold, intending to smash it. Then he saw broad and beautiful plains, but no stronghold. He turned back again and went on his way until he returned to Thrudvangar. But it must be said that he then resolved to seek an encounter with the Midgard Serpent, if he could bring one about, as later happened. Now I think no one can give you a truer account of this journey of Thor’s.”

Then Gangleri said: “Utgard-Loki is very powerful, but he relies heavily on tricks and magic. Yet it is clear that he is powerful, since he had retainers with such great strength. Has Thor never avenged this?”

Har answered: “It is well known, even among those who are not learned, that Thor made amends for the journey just described. He did not stay home long before preparing for another journey so hastily that he took neither his chariot nor his goats, nor any companions. He went out beyond Midgard in the guise of a young lad and arrived one evening, as night was falling, at the home of a giant named Hymir. Thor stayed there for the night.

“At dawn Hymir got up, dressed, and prepared to row out to sea to fish. Thor sprang up, quickly got ready, and asked Hymir to let him row out to sea with him. But Hymir said that he would be little help, being small and only a youngster—‘and you will get cold if I stay out as long and as far from shore as I usually do.’

“But Thor said that he could certainly row far from land, and that it was not certain which of them would first ask to row back. Thor grew so angry with the giant that he nearly let his hammer crash into him at once. But he let it pass, since he intended to try his strength elsewhere. He asked Hymir what they should use for bait, but Hymir told him to get his own bait.

“Then Thor went off to where he saw a herd of oxen belonging to Hymir. He took the largest ox, which was called Himinhrjod, tore off its head, and carried it down to the sea. Hymir had by then pushed the boat out. Thor went aboard, sat down in the bailing space, took two oars, and rowed. Hymir thought his rowing drove them along at a good pace. Hymir rowed forward in the bow, and they made rapid progress.

“Then Hymir said that they had reached the fishing grounds where he usually sat and caught flatfish, but Thor said that he wanted to row much farther, and they put in another vigorous stretch of rowing. Hymir then said that they had come so far out that it was dangerous to stay any farther out because of the Midgard Serpent. But Thor said that he would row a while longer, and so he did. Hymir was by then very unhappy.

“When Thor shipped his oars, he made ready a very strong fishing line, and the hook was no smaller or less formidable. Thor fixed the ox’s head to the hook and cast it overboard, and the hook went to the bottom. And in truth, Thor now deceived the Midgard Serpent no less than Utgard-Loki had mocked Thor when he lifted the serpent up in his hand.

“The Midgard Serpent opened its jaws over the ox’s head, and the hook struck into the roof of its mouth. When the serpent felt this, it jerked away so hard that both Thor’s fists slammed against the gunwale. Then Thor grew angry and summoned his divine strength, bracing himself so hard that both his feet went through the boat, and he planted them against the seabed. Then he pulled the serpent up to the gunwale. And it may be said that anyone who did not see Thor glaring at the serpent, while the serpent stared back at him from below and blew out venom, has never seen a truly terrible sight.

“It is said that the giant Hymir then changed colour, turned pale, and grew afraid when he saw the serpent and the sea pouring in and out over the boat. At the very moment when Thor seized his hammer and raised it, the giant fumbled for his bait knife and cut Thor’s line at the gunwale, and the serpent sank into the sea. Thor threw his hammer after it, and people say that he struck off its head among the waves. But I believe the truth to tell you is that the Midgard Serpent still lives and lies in the sea encircling the world. Thor swung his fist and struck Hymir by the ear, so that he toppled overboard and the soles of his feet could be seen. Then Thor waded ashore.”

Then Gangleri said: “Have any greater events taken place among the Aesir? Thor performed a very great feat of strength on this journey.”

Har answered: “There are events to tell of that the Aesir considered of greater consequence. The beginning of this story is that Baldr the Good dreamed great and ominous dreams concerning his life. When he told the Aesir his dreams, they took counsel together, and it was decided to seek protection for Baldr against every kind of danger. Frigg took oaths that fire and water, iron and every kind of metal, stones, earth, trees, diseases, beasts, birds, poison, and serpents would spare Baldr.

“When this had been done and made known, it became a pastime for Baldr and the Aesir that he should stand up at their assemblies while all the others either shot at him, struck at him, or pelted him with stones. Whatever was done to him, he suffered no harm, and everyone thought this a great glory.

“But when Loki, son of Laufey, saw this, he was displeased that Baldr suffered no harm. He went to Frigg at Fensalir, having assumed the shape of a woman. Frigg asked whether the woman knew what the Aesir were doing at the assembly. She said that they were all shooting at Baldr, and that he suffered no harm.

“Then Frigg said: ‘Neither weapons nor wood will harm Baldr. I have received oaths from them all.’

“Then the woman asked: ‘Have all things sworn oaths to spare Baldr?’

“Frigg answered: ‘A shoot of wood grows west of Valhalla. It is called mistletoe. I thought it too young to demand an oath from it.’

“Then the woman went away. Loki took the mistletoe, pulled it up, and went to the assembly. Hod was standing on the outside of the circle of people, because he was blind.

“Loki said to him: ‘Why are you not shooting at Baldr?’

“He answered: ‘Because I cannot see where Baldr is, and also because I have no weapon.’

“Then Loki said: ‘You should still do as the others do and honour Baldr as other people do. I will show you where he is standing. Shoot this twig at him.’

“Hod took the mistletoe and shot at Baldr as Loki directed. The missile flew through Baldr, and he fell dead to the ground. This was the greatest misfortune ever brought about among gods and men.

“When Baldr had fallen, all the Aesir were struck speechless, and their hands failed them when they tried to take hold of him. They looked at one another, and all were of one mind towards the one who had done the deed, but no one could take vengeance: the place was so sacred a sanctuary. When the Aesir tried to speak, weeping came first, so that none could tell another in words of his grief. But Odin bore this loss worst of all, for he understood most fully how great a deprivation and loss Baldr’s death was to the Aesir.

“When the gods recovered their senses, Frigg spoke and asked who among the Aesir wished to gain all her love and favour, and would ride the road to Hel and try to find Baldr, and offer Hel a ransom if she would let Baldr go home to Asgard. The one who undertook this journey was Hermod the Bold, Odin’s son. Then Sleipnir, Odin’s horse, was brought out, and Hermod mounted him and galloped away.

“The Aesir took Baldr’s body and carried it to the sea. Baldr’s ship was called Hringhorni. It was the largest of all ships. The gods wanted to launch it and hold Baldr’s funeral burning aboard it, but the ship would not move. Then word was sent to Jotunheim for a giantess named Hyrrokkin. When she arrived, riding a wolf and using a viper for reins, she sprang off her mount. Odin summoned four berserks to look after the mount, but they could not hold it until they had thrown it to the ground.

“Then Hyrrokkin went to the prow of the ship and shoved it forward at the first push, so that fire flew from the rollers and all the lands shook. Thor grew angry, seized his hammer, and would have smashed her head, had all the gods not begged that she be spared.

“Then Baldr’s body was carried out onto the ship. When his wife Nanna, Nep’s daughter, saw this, her heart burst with grief and she died. She was carried onto the pyre, and it was set alight. Thor stood by and consecrated the pyre with Mjolnir. A dwarf named Lit ran in front of his feet, and Thor kicked him into the fire, where he burned.

“Many kinds of beings attended this burning. First to speak of Odin: with him came Frigg, the Valkyries, and his ravens. Frey drove in a chariot drawn by the boar called Gullinbursti or Slidrugtanni. Heimdall rode the horse called Gulltopp, and Freyja drove her cats. A great host of frost giants and mountain giants also came.

“Odin laid on the pyre the gold ring called Draupnir. It had this property: every ninth night, eight gold rings of equal weight dripped from it. Baldr’s horse was led onto the pyre with all its harness.

“Now it is to be told of Hermod that he rode for nine nights through valleys so dark and deep that he saw nothing until he came to the river Gjoll and rode onto the bridge over it. It was roofed with gleaming gold. The maiden who guards the bridge is called Modgud. She asked his name and lineage, and said that the day before, five companies of dead men had ridden over the bridge—‘yet the bridge thunders no less beneath you alone, and you do not have the colour of dead men. Why are you riding here on the road to Hel?’

“He answered: ‘I am to ride to Hel to seek Baldr. Have you seen anything of Baldr on the road to Hel?’

“She said that Baldr had ridden there across the bridge over Gjoll, ‘but the road to Hel leads down and north.’

“Then Hermod rode on until he came to Hel’s gates. He dismounted and tightened his horse’s girth, mounted again, and spurred him on. The horse leaped so powerfully over the gate that he came nowhere near touching it. Then Hermod rode up to the hall and dismounted. He went inside the hall and saw his brother Baldr sitting there in the seat of honour. Hermod stayed there that night.

“In the morning Hermod asked Hel to let Baldr ride home with him, and told her how great the weeping was among the Aesir. But Hel said that it should be put to the test whether Baldr was as well loved ‘as people say. If all things in the world, living and dead, weep for him, then he shall go back to the Aesir. But he shall remain with Hel if anyone speaks against it or refuses to weep.’

“Then Hermod rose, and Baldr accompanied him out of the hall. He took the ring Draupnir and sent it to Odin as a keepsake. Nanna sent Frigg a linen cloth and other gifts as well, and Fulla a gold finger ring. Then Hermod rode back the way he had come, arrived in Asgard, and told all that he had seen and heard.

“After this the Aesir sent messengers throughout the world to ask that Baldr be wept out of Hel. All did so: people, living creatures, the earth, stones, trees, and every kind of metal, just as you will have seen these things weep when they come out of the frost into warmth.

“As the messengers were returning home, having carried out their errand well, they found a giantess sitting in a cave. She called herself Thokk. They asked her to weep Baldr out of Hel. She said:

‘Thokk will weep
with dry tears
for Baldr’s funeral burning;
living or dead,
the old man’s son brought me no joy.
Let Hel keep what she has.’

“People believe that this was Loki, son of Laufey, who has done the most evil among the Aesir.”

Then Gangleri said: “Loki accomplished a great deal when he first brought about Baldr’s death and then prevented him from being released from Hel. Was any vengeance taken on him for this?”

Har said: “He was repaid for this in a way he will feel for a long time. When the gods had grown as angry with him as might be expected, he ran away and hid on a mountain. There he made a house with four doors so that he could look out of it in every direction. During the day he often took the shape of a salmon and hid in the place called Franang Falls. He pondered what device the Aesir might invent to catch him in the waterfall. While he sat in the house, he took linen thread and knotted it into meshes, as nets have been made ever since, and a fire burned before him. Then he saw that the Aesir were not far away: Odin had seen from Hlidskjalf where he was. He immediately sprang up and out into the river, throwing the net onto the fire.

“When the Aesir reached the house, the first to enter was the wisest of them all, whose name is Kvasir. When he saw in the fire the ash left by the burnt net, he understood that it must be a device for catching fish, and told the Aesir. They then set about making themselves a net, following the pattern they could see in the ashes of the one Loki had made. When the net was ready, the Aesir went to the river and cast it into the waterfall. Thor held one end of the net, while all the other Aesir held the other, and they dragged it along. But Loki moved ahead of it and lay down between two stones. They dragged the net over him and felt that something alive was beneath it. They went up to the waterfall a second time and cast out the net, attaching weights heavy enough to prevent anything from passing underneath. Loki then moved ahead of the net. But when he saw that the sea was close, he leaped over the net’s upper cord and darted back up into the waterfall.

“Now the Aesir saw where he went. They went up to the waterfall again and divided their company into two groups, while Thor waded down the middle of the river, and in this way they moved towards the sea. Loki now saw two choices: to leap into the sea would put his life in danger, while the other choice was to leap over the net again. This he did, leaping over the net’s cord as swiftly as he could. Thor grabbed at him and caught him, but he slipped through Thor’s hand until the hand stopped at his tail. This is why the salmon tapers towards its tail.

“Loki was now captured without any promise of mercy and taken into a cave. They took three stone slabs, set them on edge, and struck a hole through each. Then Loki’s sons, Vali and Nari or Narvi, were seized. The Aesir changed Vali into a wolf, and he tore his brother Narvi apart. Then the Aesir took his entrails and bound Loki with them across the three sharp-edged stones. One stands beneath his shoulders, another beneath his loins, and the third beneath the backs of his knees. These bonds turned to iron. Then Skadi took a venomous snake and fastened it above him so that its venom would drip onto his face. But Sigyn, his wife, stands beside him and holds a basin beneath the drops of venom. When the basin is full, she goes to pour the venom away, and meanwhile the venom drips onto his face. Then he convulses so violently that the whole earth shakes. That is what you call an earthquake. There he lies bound until Ragnarok.”

Then Gangleri said: “What is there to tell of Ragnarok? I have never heard it mentioned before.”

Har said: “There are many great events to tell of. The first is that the winter called Fimbulwinter will come. Snow will drive from every direction. There will be bitter frosts and sharp winds. The sun will give no benefit. Three such winters will follow one another, with no summer between them. But before these will come three other winters, during which great battles will rage throughout the world. Brothers will kill one another out of greed, and no one will spare father or son in murder or the breaking of kinship. As it says in the Seeress’s Prophecy:

Brothers will fight
and kill one another;
sisters’ sons will
betray their kinship.
Hard times among men,
adultery rampant;
an axe-age, a sword-age,
shields are split;
a wind-age, a wolf-age,
before the world falls.

“Then something will happen that will be thought a great event: the wolf will swallow the sun, and people will regard it as a terrible calamity. Then the other wolf will seize the moon, and he too will cause great harm. The stars will vanish from the sky. Then the whole earth and the mountains will shake so violently that trees will be uprooted from the ground, mountains will collapse, and all fetters and bonds will break and snap. Then Fenrir will be free. The sea will surge over the land, for Jormungand will writhe in a giant’s fury and make his way ashore. Then the ship called Naglfar will also break loose. It is made from dead people’s nails, and for this reason it is worth guarding against anyone dying with untrimmed nails: such a person adds greatly to the material for the ship Naglfar, which gods and men would wish never to be finished. In this flooding sea, Naglfar will float. The giant who steers Naglfar is called Hrym.

“Fenrir will advance with his mouth gaping, his lower jaw against the earth and his upper jaw against the sky. He would gape wider if there were room. Flames will blaze from his eyes and nostrils. Jormungand will blow out so much venom that he will spray all the air and sea. He will be utterly terrifying and will advance beside the wolf. Amid this tumult the sky will split apart, and the sons of Muspell will ride out of it. Surt will ride first, with fire blazing before and behind him. His sword is exceedingly fine; it shines more brightly than the sun. When they ride over Bifrost, it will break, as was said before. The sons of Muspell will advance onto the field called Vigrid. Fenrir and Jormungand will also come there. Loki and Hrym will have arrived there too, and with Hrym all the frost-giants, while all Hel’s followers will accompany Loki. But the sons of Muspell will have their own battle formation, and it will be very bright. The field Vigrid is a hundred leagues across in every direction.

“When these events take place, Heimdall will rise and blow mightily into Gjallarhorn, waking all the gods, and they will hold an assembly together. Then Odin will ride to Mimir’s well and seek Mimir’s counsel for himself and his company. Then Yggdrasil’s ash will tremble, and nothing in heaven or on earth will be without fear. The Aesir and all the Einherjar will arm themselves and advance onto the field. Odin will ride first, wearing his golden helmet and fine coat of mail and carrying his spear, called Gungnir. He will make for Fenrir, while Thor advances beside him. Thor will be unable to help him, for he will have his hands full fighting Jormungand. Frey will fight Surt, and their encounter will be fierce before Frey falls. His death will result from his lacking the good sword he gave to Skirnir.

“Then the dog Garm, who is bound before Gnipa Cave, will also have broken free. He is a monstrous creature. He will fight Tyr, and each will kill the other. Thor will slay Jormungand and take nine steps away from him. Then he will fall dead to the ground from the venom the serpent has blown onto him. The wolf will swallow Odin, and that will be his death. But immediately afterwards Vidar will stride forward and set one foot on the wolf’s lower jaw. On that foot he wears the shoe for which material has been gathered throughout all time: the scraps of leather people cut from their shoes at the toes or heels. Anyone wishing to help the Aesir should therefore throw those scraps away. With one hand he will seize the wolf’s upper jaw and tear his mouth apart, and that will be the wolf’s death. Loki will fight Heimdall, and each will kill the other. After that, Surt will fling fire over the earth and burn the whole world. As it says in the Seeress’s Prophecy:

Loudly Heimdall blows,
the horn is raised;
Odin speaks
with Mimir’s head.
Yggdrasil’s ash
trembles where it stands;
the ancient tree groans,
and the giant breaks loose.

What is happening among the Aesir?
What is happening among the elves?
All Jotunheim resounds;
the Aesir are in council.
The dwarfs groan
before their stone doors,
masters of the rocky cliffs.
Do you know yet, or what?

Hrym drives from the east,
raising his shield before him;
Jormungand writhes
in a giant’s fury.
The serpent lashes the waves;
the eagle will shriek,
pale-beaked, tearing corpses;
Naglfar breaks loose.

A ship sails from the east;
Muspell’s people will come
across the sea,
and Loki steers.
There are all the monsters’ sons
with the ravenous wolf;
Byleist’s brother
is with them on their journey.

Surt comes from the south
with the scourge of branches;
from his sword shines
the sun of the battle-gods.
Rocky crags crash,
and giantesses stumble;
men tread the road to Hel,
and the sky splits apart.

Then Hlin’s
second grief comes,
when Odin goes
to fight the wolf,
and Beli’s bright slayer
against Surt;
there Frigg’s beloved
will fall.

Odin’s son goes
to fight the wolf,
Vidar on his way
towards the carrion beast;
with his hand he drives
his sword into the heart
of Hvedrung’s son;
then his father is avenged.

The glorious son
of Hlodyn walks,
hard-pressed by the serpent
that fears no disgrace;
all men will
leave their dwellings
when Midgard’s defender
strikes in fury.

The sun will turn black,
the earth sinks into the sea;
from the sky vanish
the bright stars.
Smoke rages
and life-feeding fire;
high heat plays
against heaven itself.

“And elsewhere it says:

Vigrid is the name of the field
where Surt and the dear gods
will meet in battle;
a hundred leagues
it measures in every direction;
that field is appointed for them.”

Then Gangleri said: “What will remain when the whole world is burned and all the gods and all the Einherjar and all humankind are dead? You have said before that everyone will live in some world for all eternity.”

Then Thridi answered: “There will be many good dwelling places then, and many bad ones. It will be best to be at Gimle in heaven. There will also be an ample supply of good drink for those who enjoy it in the hall called Brimir. It stands at Okolnir. There is also a fine hall standing in Nidafjoll, made of red gold. It is called Sindri. Good and virtuous people will dwell in these halls.

“On Nastrond there is a great and dreadful hall, whose doors face north. It is woven entirely from snakes’ spines, like a house of wattles, but all the snakes’ heads face into the house and blow venom, so that rivers of venom run through the hall. Oath-breakers and murderers wade in those rivers, as it says here:

I know a hall standing
far from the sun
on Nastrond;
its doors face north.
Drops of venom fall
in through the smoke-hole;
that hall is woven
from snakes’ spines.
There must wade
through heavy currents
men who swear false oaths
and murderers.

“But it is worst in Hvergelmir:

There Nidhogg torments
the bodies of the dead.”

Then Gangleri said: "Will any of the gods be alive then, or will there be any earth or heaven?"

Har says: "The earth will rise out of the sea then, green and fair. Fields will grow unsown. Vidar and Vali will live, for neither the sea nor Surt's fire will have harmed them, and they will dwell on Idavoll, where Asgard once stood. Thor's sons, Modi and Magni, will come there too, bringing Mjolnir. Next Baldr and Hod will come there from Hel. They will all sit together and talk, recall their secret counsels, and discuss the events of former times, the Midgard Serpent and Fenrir. Then they will find in the grass the golden gaming pieces that the Aesir once owned. As it is said:

Vidar and Vali
will dwell in the gods' sanctuaries
when Surt's flame darkens;
Modi and Magni
shall have Mjolnir
when Vingnir's fighting ends.

But in the place called Hoddmimir's Wood, two human beings named Lif and Lifthrasir will hide from Surt's fire. They will feed on morning dew, and from these people will come so many descendants that the whole world will be inhabited, as it says here:

Lif and Lifthrasir,
they will hide
in Hoddmimir's wood;
morning dew
they will have for food,
and from them generations will be born.

And you will think this remarkable: Sol will have borne a daughter no less fair than herself, and she will then follow her mother's paths, as it says here:

A single daughter
Alfrodull bears
before Fenrir takes her;
she shall ride,
when the gods die,
the maiden, on her mother's paths.

But if you can ask about anything further into the future, I do not know where that knowledge comes to you from, for I have heard no one tell of the course of the ages beyond this. Now make good use of what you have learned."

Next Gangleri heard great crashing sounds on every side and looked to one side. And when he looked around further, he found himself standing outside on a level plain, with no hall and no stronghold in sight. He then went on his way and returned home to his kingdom, where he told of the things he had seen and heard. After him, each person told these stories to another.

But the Aesir then sat down to talk and take counsel together. They recalled all these accounts that had been told to him and gave the very same names mentioned before to the people and places there, so that, when long ages had passed, people would have no doubt that the Aesir of whom these stories had just been told and those who were then given these same names were all the same beings. There was someone there who was then called Thor, and he is Asa-Thor of old.